Food Science and Technology: Series List  605

Document Outline

• Front Cover
• Food Process Engineering and Technology
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Introduction – Food is Life
• Chapter 1 Physical properties of food materials
  • 1.1 Introduction
  • 1.2 Mechanical properties
    • 1.2.1 Definitions
    • 1.2.2 Rheological models
  • 1.3 Thermal properties
  • 1.4 Electrical properties
  • 1.5 Structure
  • 1.6 Water activity
    • 1.6.1 The importance of water in foods
    • 1.6.2 Water activity, definition and determination
    • 1.6.3 Water activity: prediction
    • 1.6.4 Water vapor sorption isotherms
    • 1.6.5 Water activity: effect on food quality and stability
  • 1.7 Phase transition phenomena in foods
    • 1.7.1 The glassy state in foods
    • 1.7.2 Glass transition temperature
• Chapter 2 Fluid flow
  • 2.1 Introduction
  • 2.2 Elements of fluid dynamics
    • 2.2.1 Viscosity
    • 2.2.2 Fluid flow regimes
    • 2.2.3 Typical applications of Newtonian laminar flow
      • 2.2.3a Laminar flow in a cylindrical channel (pipe or tube)
      • 2.2.3b Laminar fluid flow on flat surfaces and channels
      • 2.2.3c Laminar fluid flow around immersed particles
      • 2.2.3d Fluid flow through porous media
    • 2.2.4 Turbulent fluid flow
      • 2.2.4a Turbulent Newtonian fluid flow in a cylindrical channel (tube or pipe)
      • 2.2.4b Turbulent fluid flow around immersed particles
  • 2.3 Flow properties of fluids
    • 2.3.1 Types of fluid flow behavior
    • 2.3.2 Non-Newtonian fluid flow in pipes
  • 2.4 Transportation of fluids
    • 2.4.1 Energy relations, the Bernoulli Equation
    • 2.4.2 Pumps: Types and operation
    • 2.4.3 Pump selection
    • 2.4.4 Ejectors
    • 2.4.5 Piping
  • 2.5 Flow of particulate solids (powder flow)
    • 2.5.1 Introduction
    • 2.5.2 Flow properties of particulate solids
    • 2.5.3 Fluidization
    • 2.5.4 Pneumatic transport
• Chapter 3 Heat and mass transfer, basic principles
  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Basic relations in transport phenomena
    • 3.2.1 Basic laws of transport
    • 3.2.2 Mechanisms of heat and mass transfer
  • 3.3 Conductive heat and mass transfer
    • 3.3.1 The Fourier and Fick laws
    • 3.3.2 Integration of Fourier's and Fick's laws for steady-state conductive transport
    • 3.3.3 Thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and molecular diffusivity
    • 3.3.4 Examples of steady-state conductive heat and mass transfer processes
  • 3.4 Convective heat and mass transfer
    • 3.4.1 Film (or surface) heat and mass transfer coefficients
    • 3.4.2 Empirical correlations for convection heat and mass transfer
    • 3.4.3 Steady-state interphase mass transfer
  • 3.5 Unsteady state heat and mass transfer
    • 3.5.1 The 2nd Fourier and Fick laws
    • 3.5.2 Solution of Fourier's second law equation for an infinite slab
    • 3.5.3 Transient conduction transfer in finite solids
    • 3.5.4 Transient convective transfer in a semi-infinite body
    • 3.5.5 Unsteady state convective transfer
  • 3.6 Heat transfer by radiation
    • 3.6.1 Interaction between matter and thermal radiation
    • 3.6.2 Radiation heat exchange between surfaces
    • 3.6.3 Radiation combined with convection
  • 3.7 Heat exchangers
    • 3.7.1 Overall coefficient of heat transfer
    • 3.7.2 Heat exchange between flowing fluids
    • 3.7.3 Fouling
    • 3.7.4 Heat exchangers in the food process industry
  • 3.8 Microwave heating
    • 3.8.1 Basic principles of microwave heating
  • 3.9 Ohmic heating
    • 3.9.1 Introduction
    • 3.9.2 Basic principles
    • 3.9.3 Applications and equipment
• Chapter 4 Reaction kinetics
  • 4.1 Introduction
  • 4.2 Basic concepts
    • 4.2.1 Elementary and non-elementary reactions
    • 4.2.2 Reaction order
    • 4.2.3 Effect of temperature on reaction kinetics
  • 4.3 Kinetics of biological processes
    • 4.3.1 Enzyme-catalyzed reactions
    • 4.3.2 Growth of microorganisms
  • 4.4 Residence time and residence time distribution
    • 4.4.1 Reactors in food processing
    • 4.4.2 Residence time distribution
• Chapter 5 Elements of process control
  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Basic concepts
  • 5.3 Basic control structures
    • 5.3.1 Feedback control
    • 5.3.2 Feed-forward control
    • 5.3.3 Comparative merits of control strategies
  • 5.4 The block diagram
  • 5.5 Input, output and process dynamics
    • 5.5.1 First order response
    • 5.5.2 Second order systems
  • 5.6 Control modes (control algorithms)
    • 5.6.1 On-off (binary) control
    • 5.6.2 Proportional (P) control
    • 5.6.3 Integral (I) control
    • 5.6.4 Proportional-integral (PI) control
    • 5.6.5 Proportional-integral-differential (PID) control
    • 5.6.6 Optimization of control
  • 5.7 The physical elements of the control system
    • 5.7.1 The sensors (measuring elements)
    • 5.7.2 The controllers
    • 5.7.3 The actuators
• Chapter 6 Size reduction
  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Particle size and particle size distribution
    • 6.2.1 Defining the size of a single particle
    • 6.2.2 Particle size distribution in a population of particles; defining a 'mean particle size'
    • 6.2.3 Mathematical models of PSD
    • 6.2.4 A note on particle shape
  • 6.3 Size reduction of solids, basic principles
    • 6.3.1 Mechanism of size reduction in solids
    • 6.3.2 Particle size distribution after size reduction
    • 6.3.3 Energy consumption
  • 6.4 Size reduction of solids, equipment and methods
    • 6.4.1 Impact mills
    • 6.4.2 Pressure mills
    • 6.4.3 Attrition mills
    • 6.4.4 Cutters and choppers
• Chapter 7 Mixing
  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Mixing of fluids (blending)
    • 7.2.1 Types of blenders
    • 7.2.2 Flow patterns in fluid mixing
    • 7.2.3 Energy input in fluid mixing
  • 7.3 Kneading
  • 7.4 In-flow mixing
  • 7.5 Mixing of particulate solids
    • 7.5.1 Mixing and segregation
    • 7.5.2 Quality of mixing, the concept of 'mixedness'
    • 7.5.3 Equipment for mixing particulate solids
  • 7.6 Homogenization
    • 7.6.1 Basic principles
    • 7.6.2 Homogenizers
• Chapter 8 Filtration
  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Depth filtration
  • 8.3 Surface (barrier) filtration
    • 8.3.1 Mechanisms
    • 8.3.2 Rate of filtration
    • 8.3.3 Optimization of the filtration cycle
    • 8.3.4 Characteristics of filtration cakes
    • 8.3.5 The role of cakes in filtration
  • 8.4 Filtration equipment
    • 8.4.1 Depth filters
    • 8.4.2 Barrier (surface) filters
  • 8.5 Expression
    • 8.5.1 Introduction
    • 8.5.2 Mechanisms
    • 8.5.3 Applications and equipment
• Chapter 9 Centrifugation
  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 Basic principles
    • 9.2.1 The continuous settling tank
    • 9.2.2 From the settling tank to the tubular centrifuge
    • 9.2.3 The baffled settling tank and the disc-bowl centrifuge
    • 9.2.4 Liquid–liquid separation
  • 9.3 Centrifuges
    • 9.3.1 Tubular centrifuges
    • 9.3.2 Disc-bowl centrifuges
    • 9.3.3 Decanter centrifuges
    • 9.3.4 Basket centrifuges
  • 9.4 Cyclones
• Chapter 10 Membrane processes
  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 Tangential filtration
  • 10.3 Mass transfer through MF and UF membranes
    • 10.3.1 Solvent transport
    • 10.3.2 Solute transport; sieving coefficient and rejection
    • 10.3.3 Concentration polarization and gel polarization
  • 10.4 Mass transfer in reverse osmosis
    • 10.4.1 Basic concepts
    • 10.4.2 Solvent transport in reverse osmosis
  • 10.5 Membrane systems
    • 10.5.1 Membrane materials
    • 10.5.2 Membrane configurations
  • 10.6 Membrane processes in the food industry
    • 10.6.1 Microfiltration
    • 10.6.2 Ultrafiltration
    • 10.6.3 Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis
  • 10.7 Electrodialysis
• Chapter 11 Extraction
  • 11.1 Introduction
  • 11.2 Solid–liquid extraction (leaching)
    • 11.2.1 Definitions
    • 11.2.2 Material balance
    • 11.2.3 Equilibrium
    • 11.2.4 Multistage extraction
    • 11.2.5 Stage efficiency
    • 11.2.6 Solid–liquid extraction systems
  • 11.3 Supercritical fluid extraction
    • 11.3.1 Basic principles
    • 11.3.2 Supercritical fluids as solvents
    • 11.3.3 Supercritical extraction systems
    • 11.3.4 Applications
  • 11.4 Liquid–liquid extraction
    • 11.4.1 Principles
    • 11.4.2 Applications
• Chapter 12 Adsorption and ion exchange
  • 12.1 Introduction
  • 12.2 Equilibrium conditions
  • 12.3 Batch adsorption
  • 12.4 Adsorption in columns
  • 12.5 Ion exchange
    • 12.5.1 Basic principles
    • 12.5.2 Properties of ion exchangers
    • 12.5.3 Application: Water softening using ion exchange
    • 12.5.4 Application: Reduction of acidity in fruit juices
• Chapter 13 Distillation
  • 13.1 Introduction
  • 13.2 Vapor–liquid equilibrium (VLE)
  • 13.3 Continuous flash distillation
  • 13.4 Batch (differential) distillation
  • 13.5 Fractional distillation
    • 13.5.1 Basic concepts
    • 13.5.2 Analysis and design of the column
    • 13.5.3 Effect of the reflux ratio
    • 13.5.4 Tray configuration
    • 13.5.5 Column configuration
    • 13.5.6 Heating with live steam
    • 13.5.7 Energy considerations
  • 13.6 Steam distillation
  • 13.7 Distillation of wines and spirits
• Chapter 14 Crystallization and dissolution
  • 14.1 Introduction
  • 14.2 Crystallization kinetics
    • 14.2.1 Nucleation
    • 14.2.2 Crystal growth
  • 14.3 Crystallization in the food industry
    • 14.3.1 Equipment
    • 14.3.2 Processes
  • 14.4 Dissolution
    • 14.4.1 Introduction
    • 14.4.2 Mechanism and kinetics
• Chapter 15 Extrusion
  • 15.1 Introduction
  • 15.2 The single-screw extruder
    • 15.2.1 Structure
    • 15.2.2 Operation
    • 15.2.3 Flow models, extruder throughput
    • 15.2.4 Residence time distribution
  • 15.3 Twin-screw extruders
    • 15.3.1 Structure
    • 15.3.2 Operation
    • 15.3.3 Advantages and shortcomings
  • 15.4 Effect on foods
    • 15.4.1 Physical effects
    • 15.4.2 Chemical effect
  • 15.5 Food applications of extrusion
    • 15.5.1 Forming extrusion of pasta
    • 15.5.2 Expanded snacks
    • 15.5.3 Ready-to-eat cereals
    • 15.5.4 Pellets
    • 15.5.5 Other extruded starchy and cereal products
    • 15.5.6 Texturized protein products
    • 15.5.7 Confectionery and chocolate
    • 15.5.8 Pet foods
• Chapter 16 Spoilage and preservation of foods
  • 16.1 Mechanisms of food spoilage
  • 16.2 Food preservation processes
  • 16.3 Combined processes (the 'hurdle effect')
  • 16.4 Packaging
• Chapter 17 Thermal processing
  • 17.1 Introduction
  • 17.2 The kinetics of thermal inactivation of microorganisms and enzymes
    • 17.2.1 The concept of decimal reduction time
    • 17.2.2 Effect of the temperature on the rate of thermal destruction/inactivation
  • 17.3 Lethality of thermal processes
  • 17.4 Optimization of thermal processes with respect to quality
  • 17.5 Heat transfer considerations in thermal processing
    • 17.5.1 In-package thermal processing
    • 17.5.2 In-flow thermal processing
• Chapter 18 Thermal processes, methods and equipment
  • 18.1 Introduction
  • 18.2 Thermal processing in hermetically closed containers
    • 18.2.1 Filling into the cans
    • 18.2.2 Expelling air from the head-space
    • 18.2.3 Sealing
    • 18.2.4 Heat processing
  • 18.3 Thermal processing in bulk, before packaging
    • 18.3.1 Bulk heating – hot filling – sealing – cooling in container
    • 18.3.2 Bulk heating – holding – bulk cooling – cold filling – sealing
    • 18.3.3 Aseptic processing
• Chapter 19 Refrigeration, chilling and freezing
  • 19.1 Introduction
  • 19.2 Effect of temperature on food spoilage
    • 19.2.1 Temperature and chemical activity
    • 19.2.2 Effect of low temperature on enzymatic spoilage
    • 19.2.3 Effect of low temperature on microorganisms
    • 19.2.4 Effect of low temperature on biologically active (respiring) tissue
    • 19.2.5 The effect of low temperature on physical properties
  • 19.3 Freezing
    • 19.3.1 Phase transition, freezing point
    • 19.3.2 Freezing kinetics, freezing time
    • 19.3.3 Effect of freezing and frozen storage on product quality
• Chapter 20 Refrigeration, equipment and methods
  • 20.1 Sources of refrigeration
    • 20.1.1 Mechanical refrigeration
    • 20.1.2 Refrigerants
    • 20.1.3 Distribution and delivery of refrigeration
  • 20.2 Cold storage and refrigerated transport
  • 20.3 Chillers and freezers
    • 20.3.1 Blast cooling
    • 20.3.2 Contact freezers
    • 20.3.3 Immersion cooling
    • 20.3.4 Evaporative cooling
• Chapter 21 Evaporation
  • 21.1 Introduction
  • 21.2 Material and energy balance
  • 21.3 Heat transfer
    • 21.3.1 The overall coefficient of heat transfer U
    • 21.3.2 The temperature difference T[sub(s)] – T[sub(c)] (ΔT)
  • 21.4 Energy management
    • 21.4.1 Multiple-effect evaporation
    • 21.4.2 Vapor recompression
  • 21.5 Condensers
  • 21.6 Evaporators in the food industry
    • 21.6.1 Open pan batch evaporator
    • 21.6.2 Vacuum pan evaporator
    • 21.6.3 Evaporators with tubular heat exchangers
    • 21.6.4 Evaporators with external tubular heat exchangers
    • 21.6.5 Boiling film evaporators
  • 21.7 Effect of evaporation on food quality
    • 21.7.1 Thermal effects
    • 21.7.2 Loss of volatile flavor components
• Chapter 22 Dehydration
  • 22.1 Introduction
  • 22.2 Thermodynamics of moist air (psychrometry)
    • 22.2.1 Basic principles
    • 22.2.2 Humidity
    • 22.2.3 Saturation, relative humidity (RH)
    • 22.2.4 Adiabatic saturation, wet-bulb temperature
    • 22.2.5 Dew point
  • 22.3 Convective drying (air drying)
    • 22.3.1 The drying curve
    • 22.3.2 The constant rate phase
    • 22.3.3 The falling rate phase
    • 22.3.4 Calculation of drying time
    • 22.3.5 Effect of external conditions on the drying rate
    • 22.3.6 Relationship between film coefficients in convective drying
    • 22.3.7 Effect of radiation heating
    • 22.3.8 Characteristic drying curves
  • 22.4 Drying under varying external conditions
    • 22.4.1 Batch drying on trays
    • 22.4.2 Through-flow batch drying in a fixed bed
    • 22.4.3 Continuous air drying on a belt or in a tunnel
  • 22.5 Conductive (boiling) drying
    • 22.5.1 Basic principles
    • 22.5.2 Kinetics
    • 22.5.3 Systems and applications
  • 22.6 Dryers in the food processing industry
    • 22.6.1 Cabinet dryers
    • 22.6.2 Tunnel dryers
    • 22.6.3 Belt dryers
    • 22.6.4 Belt-trough dryers
    • 22.6.5 Rotary dryers
    • 22.6.6 Bin dryers
    • 22.6.7 Grain dryers
    • 22.6.8 Spray dryers
    • 22.6.9 Fluidized bed dryer
    • 22.6.10 Pneumatic dryer
    • 22.6.11 Drum dryers
    • 22.6.12 Screw conveyor and mixer dryers
    • 22.6.13 Sun drying, solar drying
  • 22.7 Issues in food drying technology
    • 22.7.1 Pre-drying treatments
    • 22.7.2 Effect of drying conditions on quality
    • 22.7.3 Post-drying treatments
    • 22.7.4 Rehydration characteristics
    • 22.7.5 Agglomeration
  • 22.8 Energy consumption in drying
  • 22.9 Osmotic dehydration
• Chapter 23 Freeze drying (lyophilization) and freeze concentration
  • 23.1 Introduction
  • 23.2 Sublimation of water
  • 23.3 Heat and mass transfer in freeze drying
  • 23.4 Freeze drying, in practice
    • 23.4.1 Freezing
    • 23.4.2 Drying conditions
    • 23.4.3 Freeze drying, commercial facilities
    • 23.4.4 Freeze dryers
  • 23.5 Freeze concentration
    • 23.5.1 Basic principles
    • 23.5.2 The process of freeze concentration
• Chapter 24 Frying, baking, roasting
  • 24.1 Introduction
  • 24.2 Frying
    • 24.2.1 Types of frying
    • 24.2.2 Heat and mass transfer in frying
    • 24.2.3 Systems and operation
    • 24.2.4 Health aspects of fried foods
  • 24.3 Baking and roasting
• Chapter 25 Ionizing irradiation and other non-thermal preservation processes
  • 25.1 Preservation by ionizing radiations
    • 25.1.1 Introduction
    • 25.1.2 Ionizing radiations
    • 25.1.3 Radiation sources
    • 25.1.4 Interaction with matter
    • 25.1.5 Radiation dose
    • 25.1.6 Chemical and biological effects of ionizing irradiation
    • 25.1.7 Industrial applications
  • 25.2 High hydrostatic pressure preservation
  • 25.3 Pulsed electric fields (PEF)
  • 25.4 Pulsed intense light
• Chapter 26 Food packaging
  • 26.1 Introduction
  • 26.2 Packaging materials
    • 26.2.1 Introduction
    • 26.2.2 Materials for packaging foods
    • 26.2.3 Transport properties of packaging materials
    • 26.2.4 Optical properties
    • 26.2.5 Mechanical properties
    • 26.2.6 Chemical reactivity
  • 26.3 The atmosphere in the package
    • 26.3.1 Vacuum packaging
    • 26.3.2 Controlled atmosphere packaging (CAP)
    • 26.3.3 Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
    • 26.3.4 Active packaging
  • 26.4 Environmental issues
• Chapter 27 Cleaning, disinfection, sanitation
  • 27.1 Introduction
  • 27.2 Cleaning kinetics and mechanisms
    • 27.2.1 Effect of the contaminant
    • 27.2.2 Effect of the support
    • 27.2.3 Effect of the cleaning agent
    • 27.2.4 Effect of the temperature
    • 27.2.5 Effect of mechanical action (shear)
  • 27.3 Kinetics of disinfection
  • 27.4 Cleaning of raw materials
  • 27.5 Cleaning of plants and equipment
    • 27.5.1 Cleaning out of place (COP)
    • 27.5.2 Cleaning in place (CIP)
  • 27.6 Cleaning of packages
  • 27.7 Odor abatement
• Appendix
  • Table A.1 Common conversion factors
  • Table A.2 Typical composition of selected foods
  • Table A.3 Viscosity and density of gases and liquids
  • Table A.4 Thermal properties of materials
  • Table A.5 Emissivity of surfaces
  • Table A.6 US standard sieves
  • Table A.7 Properties of saturated steam – temperature table
  • Table A.8 Properties of saturated steam – pressure table
  • Table A.9 Properties of superheated steam
  • Table A.10 Vapor pressure of liquid water and ice below 0°C<
    
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