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aspects of her work have informed my own, but her research on Kūkai and the objects he
imported has particular relevance to my thesis.
Her book is a challenging yet complementary companion to Ryūichi Abe’s book,
The
Weaving of the Mantra: Kūkai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse.
15
Although
not about visual culture, Abe’s book is an extremely rich source for the study of Mikkyō with its
semiological, literary historical approach—and by extension, to some areas of visual culture.
Abe's attention to and analysis of sectarian and historical texts is a strong base for my own
investigation
of Esoteric Buddhist theory, especially as it relates to semiotics and Sanskrit
from
the perspective of Kūkai. These two sources have shaped my study of Mikkyō and, likewise, my
approach to my thesis subject. I will reference them throughout my thesis.
Robert van Gulik’s 1956 seminal work,
Siddham; An Essay on the History of Sanskrit
Studies in China and Japan, is the first English-language comprehensive study of Sanskrit use
outside of India.
16
In it, he outlines in great detail the transfer of Sanskrit from India to China
and then to Japan via Buddhist texts and practices. Written over a half-century ago, there are
points in the book that are outdated due to later research, but overall his book provides an
excellent and
reliable
study of primary sources (Rambelli cites van Gulik periodically in his own
work). The author explores the capability of translators of Buddhist texts as well as the Sanskrit
language training scholar-monks received first in China and then in Japan. Through this study,
he elaborates on the changes that Sanskrit underwent in its export to other countries.
Van Gulik, perhaps most significantly, addresses the study of Sanskrit itself in Asia
(known in Japanese as
shittangaku,
悉曇学
), including in the monastic careers of monks such as
15
Abe, Ryūichi.
The Weaving of the Mantra: Kūkai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse. New
York: Columbia University Press, 1999.
16
Gulik, Robert Hans van.
Siddham; an Essay on the History of Sanskrit Studies in China and Japan. Nagpur:
International Academy of Indian Culture, 1956.
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Kūkai and Kakuban (1095-1183). Few scholars have covered this topic since, but Fabio
Rambelli competently addresses it throughout his publications. Although
his texts are full of
pertinent information, a distinguishing feature of Rambelli’s work is his semiotic methodology.
As such, even though background in Western semiotics (such as works of scholars such as
Derrida, Saussure, Peirce, and Levi-Strauss) is necessary in reference to my work on Sanskrit,
Rambelli’s semiotic methodology will act as my main reference. He combines Western semiotic
terms with Buddhist semiotic theory in a manner that sheds light on the polysemy of the Sanskrit
sign in Japanese Esoteric Buddhism. Like van Gulik, Rambelli discusses sectarian scholarship
and, using religious texts and commentaries, he breaks down the various layers of
meaning that
can be found in the Japanese Sanskrit characters.
17
Despite Rambelli’s attention to Sanskrit
in
Mikkyō
, he generally does not discuss specific types of objects on which Sanskrit characters are
found or their roles in the trajectory of the use of Sanskrit in Japanese visual culture throughout
the centuries. Other scholars have informed my work, but the four scholars discussed above
(Bogel, Abe, van Gulik, and Rambelli) are my primary influences. Despite the increase in recent
years of the study of individual objects that incorporate Sanskrit,
18
very little (if any) work has
been done to situate such objects within a broader history of Sanskrit in Japanese visual culture.
In fact, the study of Sanskrit in Japanese culture is generally confined within a single field, be it
literature,
religious studies,
shittangaku, or visual studies. To study and more fully understand
Sanskrit
in Japanese visual culture it is necessary to combine these approaches in focused visual
analyses—because the visual informs and operates within all aspects of culture—that can begin
to trace a trajectory within the multitude of objects that incorporate Sanskrit.
17
I will not discuss these layers here as this would require a lengthier discussion than this introducation warrants.
18
In the field of art history, discussion of these works (such as the
hō mandara) is often confined to catalog entries,
which by nature are brief and lacking a deeper exploration.
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The understudied nature of Sanskrit in/on visual objects could be related to the late
nineteenth-century persecution of Buddhism in Japan, which caused Buddhists to de-emphasize
as much as possible the foreign aspects of the religion.
19
It is likely that such actions resulted in
a determined lack of interest in Sanskrit within visual culture at the very point in
Japanese
history when modern Japanese scholarship was being formed under the influence of Western
structures of academia. Even now, Sanskrit within Japanese visual or textual culture remains
understudied, although this state of affairs is changing with the work of scholars such as
Rambelli. My goal with this thesis is to begin a more thorough study of such objects and to start
to identify the general trends of Sanskrit use in Buddhist visual culture. To do so, it is necessary
to address multiple forms of these objects. In a master’s thesis,
it would be impossible to
provide a full exploration of each object mentioned and there is more research to be done on
many works. In fact, perhaps more than fully answering questions, my thesis aims to uncover
the questions that have been unaddressed and the areas where more work can and should be done.
19
Van Gulik put forth this hypothesis mid-twentieth century.