particular source domain. Identify each structural metaphor

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335
(c) That version of linguistics is an o
ffshoot of an earlier theory
(d) Linguistics is a 
field with many branches
(e) I’d like to plant a novel idea in your mind
Feedback
(1) IDEAS ARE PEOPLE. (2) IDEAS ARE PLANTS.
Comment The addition of these two new examples to the earlier IDEAS ARE MONEY
example shows that there are at least three (if not more) structural
metaphors in common use in English that structure the domain of IDEAS.
LJ also identify two additional general kinds of metaphor that are
commonly found in everyday language.
Definition ORIENTATIONAL METAPHORS give concepts spatial orientation by
associating an abstract knowledge area with some aspect of experiential
knowledge grounded in how human beings understand their orientation
in physical space, i.e. up vs down, front vs back, etc.
Example Expressions such as the following seem to relate the abstract notion of being
happy with being located in a physically UP position: I’m feeling up today,
That movie boosted my spirits, Her spirits rose at the news. LJ call this
metaphor HAPPY IS UP.
Comment LJ observe that our metaphorical understanding of abstract domains of
knowledge in terms of their being situated UP in physical space is not limited
just to how we understand happiness, but that we comprehend several other
abstract domains using variations on the same orientational metaphor. Some
of these other metaphors are illustrated in the following practice.
Practice Try to categorize the following expressions according to the particular kinds
of UP metaphor they re
flect.
(1) It’s eight o’clock, time to wake up
(2) John is at the peak of health
(3) Jane is on top of the situation
(4) The number of articles on semantics seems to keep going up
(5) The dean of the college occupies a lofty position in the university
(6) Jack does high-quality work
(7) That teacher always sets high standards
Feedback
These are the metaphors suggested by LJ: (1) CONSCIOUS IS UP.
(2) HEALTH IS UP. (3) HAVING CONTROL/FORCE IS UP.
(4) MORE IS UP. (5) HIGH STATUS IS UP. (6) GOOD IS UP. (7) VIRTUE
IS UP.
Comment These examples of orientational metaphors reveal some interesting facts about
the language. First, they show that the use of metaphorical language is

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systematic and not random or haphazard. There is ‘external systematicity
among the various spatialization metaphors’ (LJ 1980: 18) in that all the
metaphors involving UP are positive in some way or evoke general well-being
when viewed against our cultural knowledge and understanding. In other
words, the various metaphors are coherent with each other. Second, the
systematic nature of the metaphors re
flects the fact that they ‘are rooted in
physical and cultural experience’ (LJ 1980: 18). We understand such
metaphors because they are grounded in the way we experience the world.
(We will leave it to you to explain in a later exercise what physical and cultural
experience might cause the various abstract knowledge domains illustrated
above to be associated with UP as opposed to some other orientation.)
Now that we have looked at orientational metaphors, let us brie
fly examine
the second general kind of metaphor (in addition to structural metaphors)
that LJ identi
fied as frequently found in language.
Definition ONTOLOGICAL METAPHORS help structure our understanding of abstract
concepts and experiences, such as events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., in
terms of our experience with actual physical objects and substances in the
real world. (The term ontological is derived from the Greek root onta ‘the
things which exist’

-logy ‘the science of’.)
Example LJ use the metaphor INFLATION IS AN ENTITY to illustrate how
ontological metaphors work. They observe that by treating an abstract
concept such as monetary in
flation as though it were a physical object we can
use the everyday language we typically use to talk about such objects to
understand the concept better. Here are some ways in which we can talk
about in
flation: (1) Inflation is lowering our standard of living. (2) Inflation is

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