Semantics: a coursebook, second edition

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semantics, partially because it is often di
fficult to distinguish it precisely from
literal meaning, and also because non-literal meaning has sometimes been
regarded as largely idiosyncratic and therefore as less principled and rule-
governed than literal meaning. But the study of non-literal meaning, especially
metaphor, has become much more important in recent years, partly because
semanticists have begun to realize how prevalent it is in everyday language.
They have also begun to discover that much, if not all, of its use is not totally
haphazard or idiosyncratic, but subject to certain rules and principles that can
be discovered and described. Consequently, we feel that a brief introduction to
non-literal meaning is appropriate before wrapping up the presentation of
topics in this introductory book. Let us begin with a look at idiomatic
expressions, which are used quite frequently in everyday language.
Definition IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS (IDIOMS) are multi-word phrases whose
overall meanings are idiosyncratic and largely unpredictable, re
flecting
speaker meanings that are not derivable by combining the literal senses of
the individual words in each phrase according to the regular semantic rules
of the language.
Comment It follows that the typical meanings of idioms are not fully compositional.
Interestingly enough, however, most idioms also have possible, though
unlikely, literal compositional interpretations along with their idiomatic
senses. Which meaning is intended usually depends on the context in which
the expression is used. Let’s look at some examples.
Examples Expressions such as let the cat out of the bag and take the bull by the horns are
commonly used idioms whose usual meanings are not fully compositional,
but have to be learned as a whole. Any speaker of English knows, for
example, that let the cat out of the bag is usually used to mean something like
‘reveal a secret’, though it also has a possible, though rarely intended, literal
compositional meaning something like ‘release a small feline animal from a
sack’. Similarly, take the bull by the horns typically evokes the idea that
someone ‘takes charge of a situation’, though it could also have the more
literal compositional meaning ‘grab a (real) bull by its horns’.
Practice Each sentence below is ambiguous, containing a phrase that could be
understood either idiomatically (
figuratively) or literally, depending upon the
context in which the sentence is used. For each sentence (a) give a paraphrase
that correctly evokes each sense and (b) suggest a context in which each sense
might be appropriately used.
(1) The people let their hair down
(a)
Literal sense: ..........................................................................................
Idiomatic sense: .....................................................................................

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(b) Context for literal sense: .......................................................................
Context for idiomatic sense: .................................................................
(2) We hauled them over the coals
(a) Literal sense: ..........................................................................................
Idiomatic sense: .....................................................................................
(b) Context for literal sense: .......................................................................
Context for idiomatic sense: .................................................................
(3) He put his foot in his mouth
(a) Literal sense: ..........................................................................................
Idiomatic sense: .....................................................................................
(b) Context for literal sense: .......................................................................
Context for idiomatic sense: .................................................................
Feedback
(1) (a) Literal sense: people with long hair physically let their hair hang 
down from an up (constrained) position to fall around their shoulders.
Idiomatic sense: the people relaxed their inhibitions and behaved less
carefully. (b) Context for literal sense: perhaps the people were getting
ready to wash their hair. Context for idiomatic sense: the people were in
a relaxed mood at a party and behaved in a free and natural manner.
(2) Literal sense: we physically carried something over a pile of hot coals.
Idiomatic sense: we disciplined some people. Context for literal sense: we
had to carry something over actual hot coals, as in a burning building, in
order to get it to safety. Context for idiomatic sense: we had to tell
someone that they were behaving badly.
(3) Literal sense: he actually put one of his feet in his mouth. Idiomatic
sense: he said something inappropriate. Context for literal sense: he could
refer to a dog who is cleaning his feet by licking them. Context for
idiomatic sense: a person is saying things that are inappropriate.
Comment The fact that many, though perhaps not all, idioms are at least partly
compositional tends to be obscured, because the compositional aspects of the
figurative meanings conveyed by idioms are often metaphorical in nature. Let
us look more closely at some additional examples of idiomatic expressions
that more clearly evoke metaphors in order to understand better exactly what
metaphors are and how they work in everyday language.
Examples Examples of
figurative language in idioms that evoke metaphors may be
found in such sentences as My car is a lemon and Dr Jones is a butcher. It is
immediately apparent that if we try to interpret these sentences literally they
would typically sound anomalous or nonsensical, unless special

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circumstances are taken into account. (For example, Dr Jones may indeed
also work part of the time as an actual butcher.) But, as was the case in the
previous examples, each sentence is a perfectly natural way of expressing a
speaker meaning that does not seem to be immediately derivable from what
is literally said. The 
first sentence is typically used, for example, to mean that
my car is defective in some way, and the second means that Dr Jones is not a

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