Semantics: a coursebook, second edition

U N I T   6
Predicates, referring expressions, and universe of discourse
57
(3) In general, can proper names ever be used as predicators?
Yes / No
(4) Can the verb hit ever be used as a referring expression?
Yes / No
(5) Can the preposition on ever be used as a referring expression?
Yes / No
(6) In general, can any verb or preposition be used to refer?
Yes / No
Feedback
(1) No (2) No (3) No (We would analyse cases like That man is an Einstein
as being 
figurative for That man is similar to Einstein, where the real
predicate is similar, and not Einstein, but this analysis could conceivably be
challenged.) (4) No (5) No (6) No: they are always predicates and can
never be used as referring expressions.
Comment The distinction between referring expressions and predicates is absolute:
there is not a continuum running from proper names at one end, through
‘borderline cases’ to verbs and prepositions at the other. Either an expression
is used in a given utterance to refer to some entity in the world or it is not so
used.
There are some phrases, in particular inde
finite noun phrases, that can be
used in two ways, either as referring expressions, or as predicating
expressions.
Practice (1) Is a man in John attacked a man a referring expression?
Yes / No
(2) Is a man in John is a man a referring expression?
Yes / No
Feedback
(1) Yes (2) No
Comment A man can be either a referring expression or a predicating expression,
depending on the context. The same is true of other inde
finite NPs. On
the face of it, this may seem startling. How are we able to use the same
expressions for di
fferent purposes? We will try to untangle this riddle.
Practice (1) Imagine that you and I are in a room with a man and a woman, and,
making no visual signal of any sort, I say to you, ‘The man stole my
wallet’. In this situation, how would you know the referent of the
subject referring expression?
..........................................................................................................................
(2) If in the situation described above I had said, ‘A man stole 
my wallet’, would you automatically know the referent of the 
subject expression a man?
Yes / No
(3) So does the de
finite article, the, prompt the hearer to (try to) 
identify the referent of a referring expression?
Yes / No
(4) Does the inde
finite article, a, prompt the hearer to (try to) 
identify the referent of a referring expression?
Yes / No

PA RT  T WO
From reference . . .
58
Feedback
(1) By 
finding in the room an object to which the predicate contained in
the subject referring expression (i.e. man) could be truthfully applied (2)
No (3) Yes (4) No
Comment The presence of a predicate in a referring expression helps the hearer to
identify the referent of a referring expression. Notice that we have just drawn
a distinction between referring and identifying the referent of a referring
expression. We will explore this distinction.
Practice (1) Can the referent of the pronoun I be uniquely identi
fied 
when this pronoun is uttered?
Yes / No
(2) Can the referent of the pronoun you be uniquely identi
fied 
when this pronoun is uttered?

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