Microsoft Word LX 502 Conversational Implicatures docx
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| The Co-operative Principle
Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. This cooperative principle is an umbrella term for nine components that guide how we communicate. These nine components are grouped together into four categories, called the Maxims of Conversation: the maxim of quality (truthfulness), the maxim of quantity (informativeness), the maxim of relation (relevance), and the maxim of manner (perspicuity). (7) The Maxims of Quality i. Do not say what you believe to be false ii. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence (8) The Maxims of Quantity i. Make you contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange) ii. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 3 (9) The Maxims of Relation Be relevant (10) The Maxims of Manner i. Avoid obscurity of expression ii. Avoid ambiguity iii. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity) iv. Be orderly Following the cooperative principle and its maxims ensures that in an exchange, the right amount of information is provided and that the exchange is conducted in a truthful, relevant, perspicuous fashion. The theory is abbreviated in (11). (11) Grice’s Theory of Conversational Implicatures (abridged) i. The Cooperative Principle ii. The Maxims of Conversation Quality Try to make your contribution one that is true Quantity Make your contribution as informative and no more so than is required. Relation Be relevant Manner Be perspicuous In a conversation, the speaker may do one of four things with regards to the cooperative principle and the maxims. These are listed in (12). (12) i. The speaker may observe the maxims—this is the default assumption. ii. The speaker may opt out of a maxim by using a phrase that eliminates or mitigates the effect of the maxims and signals this to the addressee—this phrase is called a hedge. iii. The speaker may flout a maxim, to the full knowledge of the addressee iv. The speaker may violate a maxim, e.g., lie. If the speaker chooses to do the last, (12iv), he is ignoring the cooperative principle without giving the addressee a cue that he is doing so. We will ignore this altogether as it is impossible to predict anything from it and so no systematic analysis can result from it. The remaining three are of interest, especially (12i). In particular, Grice’s theory relies on a fundamental assumption in (13). (13) Fundamental Assumption It is assumed that at some level, the speaker is always observing the cooperative principle, even if this is not evident from what is literally said, i.e., what is literally said does not coincide with the maxims. Observing the maxims at a non-literal level triggers a standard conversational implicature, sometimes called a conversational implicature O . 4 This just means that if the addressee assumes the speaker is following the maxims, but that this is not evident at a literal level, then the addressee infers additional meaning (in the form of an implicature) to make up the difference. In other words, what is literally said + the implicature together satisfy the maxims. 3. Examples of Standard Implicatures Before continuing, here are some examples of conversational implicatures. I’ll start with the implicature that are arise because of the maxim of quality. (14) tải về 120.73 Kb. Chia sẻ với bạn bè của bạn:
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