“quy luật bù-trừ” (trade-off theory) trong tiến hóa

CHƯƠNG 7: TẠI SAO PHỐ WALL SỤP ĐỔ VÀ WARREN BUFFETT THÀNH CÔNG?

  1. Chỉ vừa ngay sau thời điểm 7:30: Alan’s story and the description of Dorn and her house are based on a series of telephone and e-mail interviews with the author, conducted between 2008 and 2010.

  2. Lịch sử ngành tài chính đầy ắp các ví dụ: There are also many examples from military history. “Hurrah, boys, we’ve got them!” General Custer famously shouted at the battle of Little Bighorn in 1876—just before his entire unit of two hundred men was wiped out by three thousand Sioux and Cheyenne. General MacArthur advanced in the face of repeated Chinese threats of attack during the Korean War, costing almost 2 million lives with little strategic gain. Stalin refused to believe that the Germans would invade Russia in 1941, even after ninety warnings of an impending attack. See Dominic D. P. Johnson, Overconfidence and War: The Havoc and Glory of Positive Illusions (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004).

  3. Vụ sát nhập giữa AOL và Time Warner: Nina Monk, Fools Rush In: Steve Case, Jerry Levin, and the Unmaking of AOL Time-Warner (New York: HarperCollins, 2005).

  4. Họ tự bảo vệ bản thân mình tốt hơn: The psychology professor Richard Howard, in an interview with the author on November 17, 2008, notes that introverts tend to down-regulate positive emotions and extroverts tend to up-regulate them.

  5. hệ viền (limbic system) của chúng ta: Note that these days many scientists dislike the phrase “limbic system.” This is because no one really knows which parts of the brain this term refers to. The brain areas included in this system have changed over the years, and today many use the term to mean brain areas that have something to do with emotion. Still, it’s a useful shorthand.

  6. “Không, không, không! Đừng có làm việc đó”: See, for example, Ahmad R. Hariri, Susan Y. Bookheimer, and John C. Mazziotta, “Modulating Emotional Responses: Effects of a Neocortical Network on the Limbic Systems,” NeuroReport 11 (1999): 43–48.

  7. thứ khiến người hướng ngoại là người hướng ngoại: Richard E. Lucas and Ed Diener, “Cross-Cultural Evidence for the Fundamental Features of Extraversion,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79, no. 3 (2000): 452–68. See also Michael D. Robinson et al., “Extraversion and Reward-Related Processing: Probing Incentive Motivation in Affective Priming Tasks,” Emotion 10, no. 5 (2010): 615–26.

  8. Họ đã được chứng minh là có tham vọng kinh tế, chính trị, và khoái lạc chủ nghĩa (hedonistic) lớn hơn nhiều: Joshua Wilt and William Revelle, “Extraversion,” in Handbook of Individual Differences in Social Behavior, edited by Mark R. Leary and Rich H. Hoyle (New York: Guilford Press, 2009), 39.

  9. Chìa khóa có vẻ nằm ở cảm xúc tích cực: See Lucas and Diener, “Cross-Cultural Evidence for the Fundamental Features of Extraversion.” See also Daniel Nettle, Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).

10. Nền tảng cơ bản của sự “say sưa”: Richard Depue and Paul Collins, “Neurobiology of the Structure of Personality: Dopamine, Facilitation of Incentive Motivation, and Extraversion,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 22, no. 3 (1999): 491–569. See also Nettle, Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are.

11. Dopamine là “chất hóa học phần thưởng”: Depue and Collins, “Neurobiology of the Structure of Personality: Dopamine, Facilitation of Incentive Motivation, and Extraversion.” See also Nettle,Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are. See also Susan Lang, “Psychologist Finds Dopamine Linked to a Personality Trait and Happiness,” Cornell Chronicle 28, no. 10 (1996).

12. những khám phá bước đầu đã rất đáng kinh ngạc: Some of the findings in this line of research have been contradictory or have not been replicated, but together they pose an important avenue of inquiry.

13. . Trong một thí nghiệm, Richard Depue: Depue and Collins, “Neurobiology of the Structure of Personality: Dopamine, Facilitation of Incentive Motivation, and Extraversion.”

14. những người hướng ngoại thắng trong các trò cá cược: Michael X. Cohen et al., “Individual Differences in Extraversion and Dopamine Genetics Predict Neural Reward Responses,” Cognitive Brain Research 25 (2005): 851–61.

15. Một nghiên cứu khác nữa lại chỉ ra rằng phần medial orbitofrontal cortex: Colin G. DeYoung et al., “Testing Predictions from Personality Neuroscience: Brain Structure and the Big Five,” Psychological Science 21, no. 6 (2010): 820–28.

16. người hướng nội “có mức độ phản ứng thấp hơn” … “không phải gãy chân mới tới được chúng”: Nettle, Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are.

17. “Điều này quả thực quá tuyệt vời!”: Michael J. Beatty et al., “Communication Apprehension as Temperamental Expression: A Communibiological Paradigm,” Communication Monographs 65 (1988): reporting that people with high communication apprehension “value moderate … success less than do those low in the trait.”

18. “Tất cả mọi người đều cho rằng ưu tiên hơn vào các cảm xúc tích cực là tốt”: Richard Howard interview with the author, November 17, 2008. Howard also pointed to this interesting take by Roy F. Baumeister et al., “How Emotions Facilitate and Impair Self-Regulation,” in Handbook of Emotion Regulation, edited by James J. Gross (New York: Guilford Press, 2009), 422: “positive emotion can sweep aside the normal restraints that promote civilized behavior.”

19. Một bất lợi khác của sự say sưa: Note that this sort of risk-taking behavior is in what Daniel Nettle (Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are, 83) calls “the shared territory” of extroversion and another personality trait, conscientiousness. In some cases conscientiousness is the better predictor.

20. chết bởi tai nạn giao thông khi đang lái xe … cho đến tái hôn: Nettle,Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are. See also Timo Lajunen, “Personality and Accident Liability: Are Extroversion, Neuroticism and Psychoticism Related to Traffic and Occupational Fatalities?” Personality and Individual Differences 31, no. 8 (2001): 1365–73.

21. những người hướng ngoại là thường có xu hướng thái-quá-tin: Peter Schaefer, “Overconfidence and the Big Five,” Journal of Research in Personality 38, no. 5 (2004): 473–80.

22. chúng ta đã có thể làm tốt hơn với nhiều phụ nữ: See, for example, Sheelah Kolhatkar, “What if Women Ran Wall Street?” New York Magazine, March 21, 2010.

23. một dấu hiệu rõ rệt để nhận biết những người sẽ dám “chơi lớn” trên thị trường tài chính: Camelia M. Kuhnen and Joan Y. Chiao, “Genetic Determinants of Financial Risk Taking,” PLoS ONE 4(2): e4362. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004362 (2009). See also Anna Dreber et al., “The 7R Polymorphism in the Dopamine Receptor D4 Gene (DRD4) Is Associated with Financial Risk Taking in Men.” Evolution and Human Behavior 30, no. 2 (2009): 85–92.

24. Khi phải đối mặt với việc khả năng chiến thắng là rất thấp: J. P. Roiser et al., “The Effect of Polymorphism at the Serotonin Transporter Gene on Decision-making, Memory and Executive Function in Ecstasy Users and Controls,” Psychopharmacology 188 (2006): 213–27.

25. Một nghiên cứu khác, tiến hành trên sáu mươi tư nhà buôn khác nhau: Mark Fenton O’Creevy et al., Traders: Risks, Decisions, and Management in Financial Markets (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2005), 142–43.

26. trì hoãn phần thưởng tức thời để hướng đến món lợi lâu dài, một kỹ năng sống quan trọng,: Jonah Lehrer, “Don’t,” The New Yorker, May 18, 2009. See also Jacob B. Hirsh et al., “Positive Mood Effects on Delay Discounting,” Emotion 10, no. 5 (2010): 717–21. See also David Brooks, The Social Animal (New York: Random House, 2011), 124.

27. Ở một nghiên cứu, các nhà khoa học cho các tình nguyện viên được lựa chọn: Samuel McClure et al., “Separate Neural Systems Value Immediate and Delayed Monetary Rewards,” Science 306 (2004): 503–7.

28. Một nghiên cứu tương tự cũng gợi ý rằng: Hirsch, “Positive Mood Effects on Delay Discounting.”

29. Ấy vậy nhưng chính những cách tính toán sai lầm: Wall Street’s judgment was clouded by a strange brew of (1) lemming-like behavior, (2) the opportunity to earn large transaction fees, (3) the fear of losing market share to competitors, and (4) the inability to properly balance opportunity against risk.

30. Quá nhiều quyền lực được tập trung vào tay những người thích-mạo-hiểm hung hăng: Interview with the author, March 5, 2009.

31. “Trong hai mươi năm, ADN”: Fareed Zakaria, “There Is a Silver Lining,” Newsweek, October 11, 2008.

32. Vincent Kaminski: Steven Pearlstein, “The Art of Managing Risk,” The Washington Post, November 8, 2007. See also Alexei Barrionuevo, “Vincent Kaminski: Sounding the Alarm But Unable to Prevail,” in “10 Enron Players: Where They Landed After the Fall,” The New York Times, January 29, 2006. And see Kurt Eichenwald, Conspiracy of Fools: A True Story (New York: Broadway, 2005), 250.

33. . Hãy thử tưởng tượng bạn được mời tới phòng thí nghiệm của Newman: C. M. Patterson and Joseph Newman, “Reflectivity and Learning from Aversive Events: Toward a Psychological Mechanism for the Syndromes of Disinhibition,” Psychological Review 100 (1993): 716–36. Carriers of the s-variant of the 5HTTLPR polymorphism (which is associated with introversion and sensitivity) have also been show to be faster to learn to avoid penalizing stimuli in passive avoidance tasks. See E. C. Finger et al., “The Impact of Tryptophan Depletion and 5-HTTLPR Genotype on Passive Avoidance and Response Reversal Instrumental Learning Tasks,” Neuropsychopharmacology 32 (2007): 206–15.

34. người hướng nội được “thiết kế ra để điều tra kỹ càng”: John Brebner and Chris Cooper, “Stimulus or Response-Induced Excitation: A Comparison of the Behavior of Introverts and Extroverts,” Journal of Research in Personality 12, no. 3 (1978): 306–11.

35. bạn càng dễ rút ra được bài học từ nó: Indeed, it’s been shown that one of the crucial ways that we learn is to analyze our mistakes. See Jonah Lehrer, How We Decide (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009), 51.

36. Nếu bạn bắt ép những người hướng ngoại phải dừng lại để suy nghĩ … phản ứng thế nào với những dấu hiệu cảnh báo nguy hiểm tương tự trong tương lai: Interview with the author, November 13, 2008. Another way to understand why some people worry about risks and others ignore them is to go back to the idea of brain networks. In this chapter I focused on the dopamine-driven reward system and its role in delivering life’s goodies. But there’s a mirror-image brain network, often called the loss avoidance system, whose job is to call our attention to risk. If the reward network chases shiny fruit, the loss avoidance system worries about bad apples.

37. mức độ thể hiện của người hướng nội và hướng ngoại trong những thao tác giải quyết vấn đề phức tạp: Dalip Kumar and Asha Kapila, “Problem Solving as a Function of Extraversion and Masculinity,” Personality and Individual Differences 8, no. 1 (1987): 129–32.

38. Người hướng ngoại có điểm số cao hơn: Adrian Furnham et al., “Personality, Cognitive Ability, and Beliefs About Intelligence as Predictors of Academic Performance,” Learning and Individual Differences 14 (2003): 49–66. See also Isabel Briggs Myers and Mary H. McCaulley, MBTI Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1985), 116; see also the Myers 1980 study referred to in Allan B. Hill, “Developmental Student Achievement: The Personality Factor,” Journal of Psychological Type 9, no. 6 (2006): 79–87.

39. Một nghiên cứu trên 141 sinh viên đại học: Eric Rolfhus and Philip Ackerman, “Assessing Individual Differences in Knowledge: Knowledge, Intelligence, and Related Traits,” Journal of Educational Psychology 91, no. 3 (1999): 511–26.

40. . Người hướng nội nhận được một số lượng bằng tốt nghiệp, vị trí dẫn đầu của học bổng National Merit Scholarship, chìa khóa Phi Beta Kappa lớn hơn gấp nhiều lần so với người hướng ngoại: G. P. Macdaid, M. H. McCaulley, and R. I. Kainz,Atlas of Type Tables (Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type, 1986), pp. 483–85. See also Hill, “Developmental Student Achievement.”

41. Họ vượt mặt người hướng ngoại trong bài kiểm tra về Đánh Giá Khả Năng Tư Duy Suy Xét Watson-Glaser: Joanna Moutafi, Adrian Furnham, and John Crump, “Demographic and Personality Predictors of Intelligence: A Study Using the NEO Personality Inventory and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator,” European Journal of Personality 17, no. 1 (2003): 79–84.

42. Người hướng nội không thông minh hơn người hướng ngoại: Author interview with Gerald Matthews, November 24, 2008. See also D. H. Saklofske and D. D. Kostura, “Extraversion-Introversion and Intelligence,”Personality and Individual Differences 11, no. 6 (1990): 547–51.

43. đặc biệt là các công việc cần phải thực hiện dưới áp lực thời gian hoặc xã hội hay phải làm nhiều việc cùng lúc: Gerald Matthews and Lisa Dorn, “Cognitive and Attentional Processes in Personality and Intelligence,” in International Handbook of Personality and Intelligence, edited by Donald H. Saklofske and Moshe Zeidner (New York: Plenum Press, 1995), 367–96. See also Gerald Matthews et al., Personality Traits (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003), ch. 12.

44. tập trung sự chú tâm của mình theo những cách khác nhau … tự hỏi “what if”: Debra L. Johnson et al., “Cerebral Blood Flow and Personality: A Positron Emission Tomography Study,” The American Journal of Psychiatry 156 (1999): 252–57. See also Lee Tilford Davis and Peder E. Johnson, “An Assessment of Conscious Content as Related to Introversion-Extroversion,” Imagination, Cognition and Personality 3, no. 2 (1983).

45. một trò chơi xếp hình rất khó: Colin Cooper and Richard Taylor, “Personality and Performance on a Frustrating Cognitive Task,” Perceptual and Motor Skills 88, no. 3 (1999): 1384.

46. một loạt các mê cung in trên giấy: Rick Howard and Maeve McKillen, “Extraversion and Performance in the Perceptual Maze Test,” Personality and Individual Differences 11, no. 4 (1990): 391–96. See also John Weinman, “Noncognitive Determinants of Perceptual Problem-Solving Strategies,”Personality and Individual Differences 8, no. 1 (1987): 53–58.

47. Raven Standard Progressive Matrices: Vidhu Mohan and Dalip Kumar, “Qualitative Analysis of the Performance of Introverts and Extroverts on Standard Progressive Matrices,” British Journal of Psychology 67, no. 3 (1976): 391–97.

48. những đặc điểm tính cách của các nhân viên một tổng đài điện thoại: Interview with the author, February 13, 2007.

49. nếu bạn đang tuyển mộ nhân viên cho một ngân hàng đầu tư: Interview with the author, July 7, 2010.

50. những người đàn ông khi được cho xem những bức hình khiêu gợi: Camelia Kuhnen et al., “Nucleus Accumbens Activation Mediates the Influence of Reward Cues on Financial Risk Taking,” NeuroReport 19, no. 5 (2008): 509–13.

51. mọi người hướng ngoại đều luôn … luôn cảnh giác trước những hiểm họa: Indeed, many contemporary personality psychologists would say that threat-vigilance is more characteristic of a trait known as “neuroticism” than of introversion per se.

52. sự cảnh-giác-trước-nguy-hiểm có vẻ là một đặc điểm của một nét tính cách khác: But harm avoidance is correlated with both introversion and neuroticism (both traits are associated with Jerry Kagan’s “high reactivity” and Elaine Aron’s “high sensitivity”). See Mary E. Stewart et al., “Personality Correlates of Happiness and Sadness: EPQ-R and TPQ Compared,” Personality and Individual Differences 38, no. 5 (2005): 1085–96.

53. “Nếu bạn muốn xác định xem”: can be found athttp://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/ccarver/sclBISBAS.html. I first came across this scale in Jonathan Haidt’s excellent book, The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom (New York: Basic Books, 2005), 34.

54. “cảm thấy độc lập với môi trường xã hội”: Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience (New York: Harper Perennial, 1990), 16.

55. “Các lý thuyết tâm lý học thường mặc định rằng”: Mihalyi Csikszentmilhalyi, The Evolving Self: A Psychology for the Third Millennium (New York: Harper Perennial, 1994), xii.

56. bạn có thể sẽ thấy rằng năng lượng của bạn dường như là vô tận: The same goes for happiness. Research suggests that buzz and other positive emotions seem to come a little easier to extroverts, and that extroverts as a group are happier. But when psychologists compare happy extroverts with happy introverts, they find that the two groups share many of the same characteristics—self-esteem; freedom from anxiety; satisfaction with their life work—and that those features predict happiness more strongly than extroversion itself does. See Peter Hills and Michael Argyle, “Happiness, Introversion-Extraversion and Happy Introverts,” Personality and Individual Differences 30 (2001): 595–608.

57. “Giải Phóng Người Hướng Ngoại Bên Trong Bạn”: BusinessWeek online column, November 26, 2008.

58. Chuck Prince: For an account of Chuck Prince’s persona, see, for example, Mara Der Hovanesian, “Rewiring Chuck Prince,” Bloomberg BusinessWeek, February 20, 2006.

59. Seth Klarman: For information on Klarman, see, for example, Charles Klein, “Klarman Tops Griffin as Investors Hunt for ‘Margin of Safety,’ ” Bloomberg BusinessWeek, June 11, 2010. See also Geraldine Fabrikant, “Manager Frets Over Market but Still Outdoes It,” New York Times, May 13, 2007.

60. Michael Lewis: Michael Lewis, The Big Short: Inside the Doomsday Machine (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010).

61. Warren Buffett: Warren Buffett’s story, as related in this chapter, comes from an excellent biography: Alice Schroeder, The Snowball: Warren Buffett and the Business of Life (New York: Bantam Books, 2008).

62. “thẻ ghi điểm”: Some psychologists would relate Warren Buffett’s self-direction not necessarily to introversion but to a different phenomenon called “internal locus of control.”

CHƯƠNG 8: QUYỀN LỰC MỀM

  1. Mike Wei: The interviews with Mike Wei and others from Cupertino, related throughout this chapter, were conducted with the author at various stages between 2006 and 2010.

  2. , theo một bài báo có tên “The New White Flight”: Suein Hwang, “The New White Flight,” Wall Street Journal, November 19, 2005.

  3.  53 người đã được lọt vào danh sách vòng bán kết để nhận học bổng National Merit Scholarship … cao hơn mức trung bình trên toàn nước Mỹ tới 27 phần trăm.: Monta Vista High School website, as of May 31, 2010.

  4. Nói chuyện đơn giản không phải là một trọng tâm: Richard C. Levin, “Top of the Class: The Rise of Asia’s Universities,”Foreign Affairs, May/June 2010.

  5. tờ San Jose Mercury News cho đăng một bài báo: Sarah Lubman, “East West Teaching Traditions Collide,”San Jose Mercury News, February 23, 1998.

  6. “các trường đại học nên học cách lắng nghe âm thanh của sự tĩnh lặng”: Heejung Kim, “We Talk, Therefore We Think? A Cultural Analysis of the Effect of Talking on Thinking,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83, no. 4 (2002): 828–42.

  7. Tờ The Journal of Research in Personality đã đăng: Robert R. McCrae, “Human Nature and Culture: A Trait Perspective,” Journal of Research in Personality 38 (2004): 3–14.

  8. Cư dân Mỹ là một phần trong số những người hướng ngoại nhất trên thế giới này.: See, for example, David G. Winter, Personality: Analysis and Interpretation of Lives (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996), 459.

  9. một nghiên cứu so sánh các trẻ em từ tám tới mười tuổi: Xinyin Chen et al., “Social Reputation and Peer Relationships in Chinese and Canadian Children: A Cross-Cultural Study,” Child Development 63, no. 6 (1992): 1336–43. See also W. Ray Crozier, Shyness: Development, Consolidation and Change(Routledge, 2001), 147.

10. học sinh phổ thông ở Trung Quốc nói lại với các nhà nghiên cứu: Michael Harris Bond, Beyond the Chinese Face: Insights from Psychology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 62.

11. Một nghiên cứu khác yêu cầu những người Mỹ gốc Á và người Mỹ gốc Âu: Kim, “We Talk, Therefore We Think?”

12. thái độ của người châu Á trước việc nói: See, for example, Heejung Kim and Hazel Markus, “Freedom of Speech and Freedom of Silence: An Analysis of Talking as a Cultural Practice,” in Engaging Cultural Differences in Liberal Democracies, edited by Richard K. Shweder et al. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002), 432–52.

13. những câu tục ngữ đến từ phương Đông: Some of these come from the epigraph of the article by Heejung Kim and Hazel Markus, cited above.

14. kỳ thi jinshi (進士-tiến sĩ) của triều Minh: Nicholas Kristof, “The Model Students,” New York Times, May 14, 2006.

15. các tư thế thể hiện quyền thế: Jonathan Freeman et al., “Culture Shapes a Mesolimbic Response to Signals of Dominance and Subordination that Associates with Behavior,” NeuroImage 47 (2009): 353–59.

16. “Chỉ có những người đến từ một truyền thống thẳng thắn”: Harris Bond, Beyond the Chinese Face, 53.

17. taijin kyofusho: Carl Elliott, Better Than Well: American Medicine Meets the American Dream (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003), 71.

18. các nhà tu hành Phật giáo ở Tây Tạng có thể tìm thấy sự an lành trong tâm trí: Marc Kaufman, “Meditation Gives Brain a Charge, Study Finds,” Washington Post, January 3, 2005.

19. “Sự lễ độ, phép lịch sự của họ từ lâu đã được biết đến”: Lydia Millet, “The Humblest of Victims,” New York Times, August 7, 2005.

20. phương Tây hóa: See, for example, Xinyin Chen et al., “Social Functioning and Adjustment in Chinese Children: The Imprint of Historical Time,” Child Development76, no. 1 (2005): 182–95.

21. Một nghiên cứu so sánh những thiếu niên Mỹ gốc Âu và các thiếu niên Mỹ gốc Á: C. S. Huntsinger and P. E. Jose, “A Longitudinal Investigation of Personality and Social Adjustment Among Chinese American and European American Adolescents,” Child Development 77, no. 5 (2006): 1309–24. Indeed, the same thing seems to be happening to Chinese kids in China as the country Westernizes, according to a series of longitudinal studies measuring changes in social attitudes. While shyness was associated with social and academic achievement for elementary school children as recently as 1990, by 2002 it predicted peer rejection and even depression. See Chen, “Social Functioning and Adjustment in Chinese Children.”

22. Nhà báo Nicholas Lemann: “Jews in Second Place,” Slate, June 25, 1996.

23. “A … E … U … O … I”: These vowels were presented out of the usual sequence at Preston Ni’s seminar.

24. Gandhi, theo như cuốn tự truyện của ông: The story of Gandhi related in this chapter comes primarily from Gandhi: An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Boston: Beacon Press, 1957), esp. 6, 20, 40–41, 59, 60–62, 90–91.

25. Bài thi TIMSS: I originally learned about this from Malcom Gladwell, Outliers: The Story of Success(New York: Little Brown and Company, 2008).

26. Ví dụ, vào năm 1995, năm đầu tiên cuộc thi TIMSS được tổ chức: “Pursuing Excellence: A Study of U.S. Eighth-Grade Mathematics and Science Teaching, Learning Curriculum, and Achievement in International Context, Initial Findings from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study,” U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Pursuing Excellence, NCES 97-198 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996).

27. Vào năm 2007, khi các nhà nghiên cứu thống kê: TIMSS Executive Summary. The nations whose students fill out more of the questionnaire also tend to have students who do well on the TIMSS test: Erling E. Boe et al., “Student Task Persistence in the Third International Mathematics and Science Study: A Major Source of Achievement Differences at the National, Classroom and Student Levels” (Research Rep. No. 2002-TIMSS1) (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Graduate School of Education, Center for Research and Evaluation in Social Policy). Note that this study was based on 1995 data.

28. nhà tâm lý học giao thoa văn hóa (cross-cultural psychologist) Priscilla Blinco: Priscilla Blinco, “Task Persistence in Japanese Elementary Schools,” in Windows on Japanese Education, edited by Edward R. Beauchamp (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1991). Malcolm Gladwell wrote about this study in his book Outliers.

CHAPTER 9: KHI NÀO THÌ BẠN NÊN TỎ RA HƯỚNG NGOẠI HƠN MỨC BẠN THỰC SỰ LÀ?

  1. Hãy gặp giáo sư Brian Little: The stories about Brian Little throughout this chapter come from numerous telephone and e-mail interviews with the author between 2006 and 2010.

  2. Hippocrates, Milton, Schopenhauer, Jung: Please see A Note on the Words Introvert and Extrovertfor more on this point.

  3. Walter Mischel: For an overview of the person-situation debate, see, for example, David C. Funder,The Personality Puzzle (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 118–44. See also Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda, “Reconciling Processing Dynamics and Personality Dispositions,” Annual Review of Psychology49 (1998): 229–58. In further support of the premise that there truly is such a thing as a fixed personality: We know now that people who score as introverts on personality tests tend to have different physiologies and probably inherit some different genes from those who measure as extroverts. We also know that personality traits predict an impressive variety of important life outcomes. If you’re an extrovert, you’re more likely to have a wide circle of friends, have risky sex, get into accidents, and excel at people-oriented work like sales, human resources, and teaching. (This doesn’t mean that you will do these things—only that you’re more likely than your typical introvert to do them.) If you’re an introvert, you’re more likely to excel in high school, in college, and in the land of advanced degrees, to have smaller social networks, to stay married to your original partner, and to pursue autonomous work like art, research, math, and engineering. Extroversion and introversion even predict the psychological challenges you might face: depression and anxiety for introverts (think Woody Allen); hostility, narcissism, and overconfidence for extroverts (think Captain Ahab in Moby-Dick, drunk with rage against a white whale).

  4. cuộc sống giao tiếp xã hội là một màn trình diễn: See, for example, Carl Elliott, Better Than Well: American Medicine Meets the American Dream (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003), 47.

  5. Jack Welch đã khuyên trong chuyên trang điện tử của tờ BusinessWeek: Jack Welch, “Release Your Inner Extrovert,” BusinessWeekonline, November 26, 2008.

  6. Lý Thuyết Về Nét Tính Cách Tự Do (Free Trait Theory): For an overview of Free Trait Theory, see, for example, Brian R. Little, “Free Traits, Personal Projects, and Ideo-Tapes: Three Tiers for Personality Psychology,” Psychological Inquiry7, no. 4 (1996): 340–44.

  7. “To thine own self be true” (be true to your own self—hãy sống thật với chính mình)”: Actually, this advice comes not so much from Shakespeare as from his character Polonius in Hamlet.

  8. một nhà tâm lý học nghiên cứu (research psychologist) tên Richard Lippa: Richard Lippa, “Expressive Control, Expressive Consistency, and the Correspondence Between Expressive Behavior and Personality,” Journal of Behavior and Personality 36, no. 3 (1976): 438–61. Indeed, psychologists have found that some people who claim not to be shy in a written questionnaire are quite adept at concealing those aspects of shyness that they can control consciously, such as talking to members of the opposite sex and speaking for long periods of time. But they often “leak” their shyness unwittingly, with tense body postures and facial expressions.

  9. các nhà tâm lý học gọi là “tự-giám-sát-bản-thân” (self-monitoring): Mark Snyder, “Self-Monitoring of Expressive Behavior,”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 30, no. 4 (1974): 526–37.

10. họ còn đồng thời ít căng thẳng hơn khi làm thế nữa.: Joyce E. Bono and Meredith A. Vey, “Personality and Emotional Performance: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Self-Monitoring,” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology” 12, no. 2 (2007): 177–92.

11. “Điểm hồi phục” là từ ngữ giáo sư Little dùng: See, for example, Brian Little, “Free Traits and Personal Contexts: Expanding a Social Ecological Model of Well-Being,” in Person-Environment Psychology: New Directions and Perspectives, edited by W. Bruce Walsh et al. (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000).

12. “một “Thỏa thuận Về Nét Tính Cách Tự Do” (“a Free Trait Agreement”)”: See, for example, Brian Little and Maryann F. Joseph, “Personal Projects and Free Traits: Mutable Selves and Well Beings,” in Personal Project Pursuit: Goals, Action, and Human Flourishing, edited by Brian R. Little et al. (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2007), 395.

13. “Lao động cảm xúc” (“emotional labor”)”: Howard S. Friedman, “The Role of Emotional Expression in Coronary Heart Disease,” in In Search of the Coronary-Prone: Beyond Type A, edited by A. W. Siegman et al. (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1989), 149–68.

14. những người thường xuyên đè nén các cảm xúc tiêu cực: Melinda Wenner, “Smile! It Could Make You Happier: Making an Emotional Face—or Suppressing One—Influences Your Feelings,” Scientific American Mind, October 14, 2009, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=smile-it-could-make-you-happier.

CHƯƠNG 10: KHOẢNG CÁCH TRONG GIAO TIẾP

  1. những người mà đề cao nhất sự gần gũi: Randy J. Larsen and David M. Buss, Personality Psychology: Domains of Knowledge About Human Nature (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005), 353.

  2. “Những người hướng ngoại cần đến người khác như một diễn đàn”: E-mail from William Graziano to the author, July 31, 2010.

  3. Trong một nghiên cứu trên 132 sinh viên: Jens B. Aspendorf and Susanne Wilpers, “Personality Effects on Social Relationships,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74, no. 6 (1998): 1531–44.

  4. nét tính cách Ngũ Đại (Big Five): Agreeableness is defined later in this chapter. “Openness to Experience” measures curiosity, openness to new ideas, and appreciation for art, invention, and unusual experiences; “Conscientious” people are disciplined, dutiful, efficient, and organized; “Emotional Stability” measures freedom from negative emotions.

  5. đặt những người này trước một màn hình: Benjamin M. Wilkowski et al., “Agreeableness and the Prolonged Spatial Processing of Antisocial and Prosocial Information,” Journal of Research in Personality 40, no. 6 (2006): 1152–68. See also Daniel Nettle, Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), chapter on agreeableness.

  6. Cả người hướng nội lẫn người hướng ngoại đều có khả năng đạt được Mức Độ Dễ Chịu cao như nhau: Under the “Big Five” definitions of personality, extroversion and agreeableness are by definition orthogonal. See, for example, Colin G. DeYoung et al., “Testing Predictions from Personality Neuroscience: Brain Structure and the Big Five,” Psychological Science 21, no. 6 (2010): 820–28: “Agreeableness appears to identify the collection of traits related to altruism: one’s concern for the needs, desires, and rights of others (as opposed to one’s enjoyment of others, which appears to be related primarily to Extraversion).”

  7. đối diện trực tiếp với nó: See, for example: (1) Donald A. Loffredo and Susan K. Opt, “Argumentation and Myers-Briggs Personality Type Preferences,” paper presented at the National Communication Association Convention, Atlanta, GA; (2) Rick Howard and Maeve McKillen, “Extraversion and Performance in the Perceptual Maze Test,” Personality and Individual Differences 11, no. 4 (1990): 391–96; (3) Robert L. Geist and David G. Gilbert, “Correlates of Expressed and Felt Emotion During Marital Conflict: Satisfaction, Personality, Process and Outcome,” Personality and Individual Differences 21, no. 1 (1996): 49–60; (4) E. Michael Nussbaum, “How Introverts Versus Extroverts Approach Small-Group Argumentative Discussions,” The Elementary School Journal 102, no. 3 (2002): 183–97.

  8. Một nghiên cứu tuyệt vời tiến hành bởi nhà tâm lý học William Graziano: William Graziano et al., “Extraversion, Social Cognition, and the Salience of Aversiveness in Social Encounters,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 49, no. 4 (1985): 971–80.

  9. robot được cho tương tác với những bệnh nhân đột quỵ: See Jerome Groopman, “Robots That Care,” The New Yorker, November 2, 2009. See also Adriana Tapus and Maja Mataric, “User Personality Matching with Hands-Off Robot for Post-Stroke Rehabilitation Therapy,” in Experimental Robotics, vol. 39 of Springer Tracts in Advance Robotics (Berlin: Springer, 2008), 165–75.

10. một nghiên cứu về kinh tế tại Đại học Michigan: Shirli Kopelman and Ashleigh Shelby Rosette, “Cultural Variation in Response to Strategic Emotions in Negotiations,” Group Decision and Negotiation17, no. 1 (2008): 65–77.

11. Trong cuốn sách của mình: “Giận Dữ: Thứ Cảm Xúc Bị Hiểu Nhầm”: Carol Tavris, Anger: The Misunderstood Emotion (New York: Touchstone, 1982).

12. Nhưng “lý thuyết trút bỏ” chỉ đơn giản là một myth: Russell Geen et al., “The Facilitation of Aggression by Aggression: Evidence against the Catharsis Hypothesis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31, no. 4 (1975): 721–26. See also Tavris, Anger.

13. những người sử dụng chất Botox: Carl Zimmer, “Why Darwin Would Have Loved Botox,” Discover, October 15, 2009. See also Joshua Ian Davis et al., “The Effects of BOTOX Injections on Emotional Experience,”Emotion 10, no. 3 (2010): 433–40.

14. ba mươi hai cặp người hướng nội và người hướng ngoại: Matthew D. Lieberman and Robert Rosenthal, “Why Introverts Can’t Always Tell Who Likes Them: Multitasking and Nonverbal Decoding,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80, no. 2 (2006): 294–310.

15. Nó yêu cầu một dạng multitask trong não bộ: Gerald Matthews and Lisa Dorn, “Cognitive and Attentional Processes in Personality and Intelligence,” in International Handbook of Personality and Intelligence, edited by Donald H. Saklofske and Moshe Zeidner (New York: Plenum, 1995), 367–96.

16. giải nghĩa những gì người kia đang nói: Lieberman and Rosenthal, “Why Introverts Can’t Always Tell Who Likes Them.”

17. thí nghiệm bởi nhà tâm lý học phát triển (developmental psychologist) Avril Thorne: Avril Thorne, “The Press of Personality: A Study of Conversations Between Introverts and Extraverts,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53, no. 4 (1987): 718–26.

CHƯƠNG 11: VỀ NHỮNG NGƯỜI THỢ LÀM GIẦY VÀ NHỮNG VỊ TƯỚNG

      Some of the advice in this chapter is based on interviews I conducted with many caring teachers, school administrators, and child psychologists, and on the following wonderful books:

Elaine Aron, The Highly Sensitive Child: Helping Our Children Thrive When the World Overwhelms Them (New York: Broadway Books), 2002.

Bernardo J. Carducci, Shyness: A Bold New Approach (New York: Harper Paperbacks, 2000).

Natalie Madorsky Elman and Eileen Kennedy-Moore, The Unwritten Rules of Friendship (Boston: Little Brown, 2003).

Jerome Kagan and Nancy Snidman, The Long Shadow of Temperament (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004).

Barbara G. Markway and Gregory P. Markway, Nurturing the Shy Child (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2005).

Kenneth H. Rubin, The Friendship Factor (New York: Penguin, 2002).

Ward K. Swallow, The Shy Child: Helping Children Triumph Over Shyness (New York: Time Warner, 2000).

  1. Mark Twain đã từng kể câu chuyện: This comes from Donald Mackinnon, who believed (but was not 100 percent certain) that Mark Twain told this story. See Donald W. MacKinnon, “The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent,” (Walter Van Dyke Bingham Lecture given at Yale University, New Haven, CT, April 11, 1962).

  2. câu chuyện cảnh báo … tiến sĩ Jerry Miller: I conducted several in-person and e-mail interviews with Dr. Miller between 2006 and 2010.

  3. Emily Miller: I conducted several interviews with Emily Miller between 2006 and 2010.

  4. Elaine Aron: Elaine N. Aron, Psychotherapy and the Highly Sensitive Person (New York: Routledge, 2010), 18–19.

  5.  tiến sĩ Jerry Miller: Rubin, The Friendship Factor.

  6. “người học tiếp nhận được rất ít”: Jill D. Burruss and Lisa Kaenzig, “Introversion: The Often Forgotten Factor Impacting the Gifted,” Virginia Association for the Gifted Newsletter 21, no. 1 (1999).

  7. Các chuyên gia tin rằng những trải nghiệm tiêu cực về nói trước đám đông: Gregory Berns, Iconoclast: A Neuroscientist Reveals How to Think Differently (Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press, 2008), 77.

  8. Người hướng ngoại thích được chuyển động, những kích thích, và các công việc hoạt động nhóm: Isabel Myers et al., MBTI Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, 3rd ed., 2nd printing (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1998), 261–62. See also Allen L. Hammer, ed., MBTI Applications: A Decade of Research on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1996).

  9. điều kiện tiên quyết cho sự phát triển tài năng: See chapter 3, especially on the work of Anders Ericsson.

10. “họ thường hết sức thoải mái nói chuyện với một hoặc hai người bạn”: E-mail from Roger Johnson to the author, June 14, 2010.

11. Don’t seat quiet kids in “high interaction” areas: James McCroskey, “Quiet Children in the Classroom: On Helping Not Hurting,” Communication Education 29 (1980).

12. nhưng nổi tiếng thì không hẳn là cần thiết: Rubin, The Friendship Factor: “Research findings do not suggest that popularity is the golden route to all manner of good things. There simply is not much evidence that it guarantees social or academic success in adolescence, young adulthood, or later life.… If your child finds one other child to befriend, and the pair clearly have fun together and enjoy each other’s company and are supportive companions, good for him. Stop worrying. Not every child needs to be part of a big, happy gang. Not every child needs many friends; for some, one or two will do.”

13. tham gia sâu sắc và trung thành với một hoạt động nào đấy: I. McGregor and Brian Little, “Personal Projects, Happiness, and Meaning: On Doing Well and Being Yourself,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74, no. 2 (1998): 494–512.

14. nhà tâm lý học Dan McAdams: Jack J. Bauer, Dan P. McAdams, and Jennifer L. Pals, “Narrative Identity and Eudaimonic Well-Being,” Journal of Happiness Studies 9 (2008): 81–104.

VÀI GHI CHÚ VỀ CÁC TỪ NGỮ ‘INTROVERT’ VÀ ‘EXTROVERT’ 

  1. nhà nhân chủng học C. A. Valentine: C. A. Valentine, “Men of Anger and Men of Shame: Lakalai Ethnopsychology and Its Implications for Sociological Theory,” Ethnology no. 2 (1963): 441–77. I first learned about this article from David Winter’s excellent textbook, Personality: Analysis and Interpretation of Lives (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996).

  2. Aristotle: Aristoteles, Problematica Physica XXX, 1 (Bekker 953A 10 ff.), as translated in Jonathan Barnes, The Complete Works of Aristotle, the Revised Oxford Translation II (Princeton, N.J.: Bollingen, 1984).

  3. John Milton: Cited in David G. Winter, Personality: Analysis and Interpretation of Lives (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996), 380–84.

  4. Schopenhauer: Arthur Schopenhauer, “Personality, or What a Man Is,” in The Wisdom of Life and Other Essays (New York and London: Dunne, 1901), 12–35 (original work published 1851); cited in Winter, Personality, 384–86.

IM LẶNG

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