Vietnamese passive expressions in different views

3.2 Vietnamese passive expressions in different views

Both traditional and modern researches agree at one obvious feature that in Vietnamese there exist Passive expressions (passive sentences).

Among traditional researches, there exist two groups: non – advocates of Passive expressions, advocates of Passive expressions, which further consist of non -bị / được group and bị / được including group.

3.2.1 Rejection of Passive voice in Vietnamese

Thomson (1965) claimed that Vietnamese is an isolated analytic language in which the verb does not change in accordance with person, tense, mood and voice. He concluded that Passive construction does not exist in Vietnamese like that in any other flectional languages such as Russian, English.

Ảnh (2000) argued that Vietnamese is a topic prominent not subject prominent language and there are no typical grammatical categories of Passive constructions.

Having the same idea, Hạo (2003) added “bị” and “được” are true notional transitive verbs in Vietnamese, not formal words in forming Passive sentences.

Standing at the neutral in position is Th¶n (1977). While he accepted “bị” and ”được” are true notional verbs in Vietnamese with the meaning of “bad luck” and “good luck”, he also accepted that the meaning of passive in Vietnamese is expressed by lexical words “bị” “được” “mắc” or by structure “O do/của S.V”.

3.2.2 Support for Passive Expressions in Vietnamese

In this part, the author intends to review all different passive constructions suggested by different linguists in terms of lexical and grammatical means.

Finally, the most logical definition of Vietnamese passive construction is to be chosen to be the basis for the analysis in the next part.

3.2.2.1. Non – “ bÞ ®­îc” passive constructions

In this part, the structures in interest are non-“ bÞ ®­îc” constructions which consist of two subgroups: Non -“ bÞ ®­îc” constructions with no passive functional words “ “bÞ, ®­îc” and Non-“ bÞ, ®­îc” constructions with other passive functional words.

This type of sentence has the structure O – V with no passive markers bÞ, ®­îc. This is similar to the concept of Neutral sentence in Ban (2004). According to Quý (2003) and ThuyÕt (1987), the decisive factors in this type of sentence are lexical meaning of the subject. The distinguish feature is based on whether the subject is animate or inanimate (suggested by ThuyÕt (1987)) and on a larger scale of physical condition, age (suggested by Quý (2003).

Because these linguists state that the structure O - V belongs to the passive constructions, the three structures of O-V, O- bÞ ®­îc –V and the corresponding active sentence can be misinterpreted.

According to ThuyÕt (1977), the existence of “bÞ, ®­îc” in passive constructions depends on the lexical meaning of the subject. The subject of this type usually is the animate noun. Without such passive functional words “bÞ, ®­îc” the sentence seems to be ambiguous. From one Vietnamese passive sentence there are two different ways of understanding as follows:

Tiger /catch /already

This sentence can be understood in two ways:

Hæ b¾t (ai ®ã)råi (Active sentence)

The tiger has caught somebody

Or Hæ bÞ b¾t råi (Passive sentence)

The tiger has been caught

With animate subject, the passive functional words “bÞ, ®­îc” do not have such important role. The important parts now fall on adjunct and/or complement in the sentence. An example is the grammatically correct sentence C¬m (bÞ) ¨n. This sentence is unnatural in daily use. Usually, this sentence need subject modifier or sentence adjunct like C¬m (bÞ) nã ¨n råi or C¬m cña t«i nã ¨n råi.

Quý (2003) has a broader view of passive sentences in terms of the subject’s lexical meaning: In the case of physical effective verbs, Quý suggests an order of denotative meaning of Noun/Noun phrase acting as the subject of sentence. She introduced the following scale:

1.Human beings a. Persons who serve others a’. Adult

b.Person who are served b’. Children

2. Animals a. Big or strong animal

b. Small or weak animal

3. Inanimate a. Instrument

b. Natural phenomenon (which affects others)

c. Non – instrument (VËt phi c«ng cô)

Nouns and noun phrases in part b and b’ in type one, b in type two and b and c in type three are often the subject of passive expressions. Part a on the other hand are often the subject of active sentence. The following sentences are taken as examples:

The hen has laid an egg this morning

This egg has been laid this morning

All these sentences have the same structures. Whether the sentences have the passive meaning or not depends on the lexical meaning of the subjects. Con gµ - hen is an animate subject meanwhile Trøng - egg is the inanimate subject. With the same structure, whether the sentence is the active or not depends on the lexical meaning of the subjects.

b. Predicate with “chÞu, m¾c, ph¶i”

Ký (1928) believes that Vietnamese verbs can be classified into three sub-classes: active, neutral and passive ones. The passive ones include: được (đặng), chịu (bị, mắc, phải) with the meaning as follows:

- “Được” or “đặng” refer to good things or lucky things to the receiver.

- “Chịu”, “bị”, “mắc”, “phải” refer to bad or unexpected things.

In addition, Ký also suggests that “nªn”, “thành”, “hãa thành”, “hãa ra”, “ở (gãa)” are passive verbs.

According to Ký(1928), three verbs “chÞu”, “m¾c”, “ph¶i” are passive functional words and these words are often associated with negative meaning. These verbs “chÞu’, “m¾c”, “ph¶i” have been listed in different structures by different linguists. The examples here are taken from Th¶n (1977) and Biªn (1999).

-ChÞu + Noun

Nã/ chÞu ¶nh h­ëng rÊt s©u sắc cña mÑ nã.

He is under his mother ‘s influence.

Th¶n, NguyÔn Kim (1977: 206)
ChÞu + Adj

Tõ bÐ nã ®·/ chÞu thiªt.

Adj

Biªn, Lª(1999: 86)

This group includes such phrases as “chÞu ¶nh h­ëng”(be influenced), “chÞu khæ”(suffer from hardness), “chÞu thiÖt thßi”(be disadvantaged). In these phrases, the adjectives are treated as nouns because we can expand these phrases with subordinators and adjectives :

- ChÞu ¶nh h­ëng  ChÞu mét ¶nh h­ëng rÊt s©u s¾c

Be under influence----Be under great influence

-M¾c

Thế nào l·o ta / cũng mắc.

Surely, he will be trapped.

Hoan, Nguyễn C«ng (1945: 126)

Mắc + N

N

We have been treated by the old man.

Mắc + V

Tao chưa mắc lừa ai.

V

I have never been cheated.

-Phải

-Phải + N

He seems to be a hen sunk in boiled water.

Tố, Ng« Tất (1957: 35)

Phải mất một mïa , người ấy kh«ng trả được nợ.

N

After one season, he is unable to pay the deft.

-Phải + V

In this structure, “phải” can only precede such verb as “phạt, mắng, chửi”.

Bố mẹ phải phạt.

V

The parents have to be punished.

-Phải + N + V

This structure is rarely found in use nowadays. In this case, “bị” is usually used instead.

V« phóc lại phải đàn bà nã tr«ng thấy.

Unluckily it is the woman who he has first seen.

Ngọc, Nguyễn Văn (1957:23)

About these verbs “chÞu”, “mắc”, “phải”, Ninh (1987) states that these verbs do not have the same features of “bị”, “được”. He proves this by testing three words in one passive structure.

N₂ mắc + N₁ + V

phải

Active sentence: Nam mắng Bắc.

Among the different passive structures, the sentence “Bắc bị Nam mắng” is the only one natural in Vietnamese. The three other sentences are unnatural in Vietnamese, which helps to prove that these verbs (chÞu, mắc, phải) are not the passive markers .

According to ThuËn (2003:137), “phải” has the neutral position between two modal verbs “Nªn, CÇn ,Ph¶i” and “Ph¶i ,BÞ, §­îc”. This shows that “phải” is not a passive formal word. It is linked with “BÞ” only by the fact that two verbs have the negative meaning.

In short, different passive markers other than BÞ, §­îc have been listed namely chÞu, mắc, phải or even ho¸ ra, trë nªn…These concepts, however, contrast with the others and fail to reflect the distinguishing features of Vietnamese passive constructions . That is the reason why in the following part, different views of passive constructions around BÞ, §­îc are to be presented.

3.2.2.2. Passive Constructions with “bÞ, ®­îc”

PhiÕn (1980) believes that the passiveness in Vietnamese is expressed with lexical and grammatical means in the syntactic structures: The Object in Active sentence becomes the Subject in the Corresponding Passive English. The predicate is associated with “bị”, “được”, “do” and agent is optional.

The functions of “bÞ, ®­îc” are often in argument relating to passive constructions. Most linguists agree that semantically “bÞ” always has negative meaning and “®­îc”, in contrast, is often associated with positive meaning. There are exceptions in such jokes as ”C¸i ¸o nµy h¬i bÞ ®Ñp ®Êy”. The grammatical function of “bÞ, ®­îc”, however, is not agreed upon among linguists. Following are different ideas of the constructions containing “bÞ, ®­îc”.

Th¶n (1977) suggests the following types of sentences including “bÞ” and “®­îc”.

TrÇn Cõ / suffer / already / questioning word

Th¶n, NguyÔn Kim (1977:195)

Qu©n ta ®­îc, qu©n Ph¸p thua.

Our enemy / win, French enemy / lose.

Th¶n, NguyÔn Kim (1977: 201)

“BÞ, ®­îc” + Adj

Anh Êy / bÞ khæ tõ bÐ

He has been suffering from hardness since he was small.

He / functional word / hard / since / small.

Th¶n, NguyÔn Kim (1977:195)

He /functional word / prison.

He was imprisoned.

Th¶n, NguyÔn Kim (1977: 200)

Birthday, I / functional word / present of father.

On my birthday, I received my father’s present.

Biªn, Lª (1990: 101)

NhËt / bÞ tan r·

Japanese / functional word / destroyed.

Japanese enemy has been destroyed.

Th¶n, NguyÔn Kim (1977: 195)

These types of sentences are not the passive ones because BÞ, ®­îc act as the real verbs.

These structures are considered passive structures by Th¶n (1977) :

“BÞ, ®­îc” + N + V

He / not / functional word / his father / love.

He is not loved by his father.

Hoan, NguyÔn C«ng (1957: 195)

He / functional word / office / vote / make / the leader.

He was voted the leader by his office members.

BÞ, ®­îc + N + V₁ + V₂

T«i ®­îc Bé cö ®i häc.

I / functional word / ministry / chose / go / learn.

I was chosen by the (Education) Ministry to continue the study.

Th¶n, NguyÔn Kim (1977: 201)

BÞ/ ®­îc+ V (transitive) such as “bÞ ®¸nh”, “bÞ ®èt”, “®­îc th­ëng” are really short forms of the structures: “bÞ” + N + V. We can establish their full forms: “bÞ (ai) ®¸nh”(be beaten), “®­îc (ai) th­ëng”(be awarded).

Village / functional word / burn.

The village has been burnt.

Th¶n, NguyÔn Kim (1977: 201)

Airplane / functional word / break / engine.

The airplane has / its engine / broken.

Th¶n, NguyÔn Kim (1977: 195)

Th¶n’s idea is somehow similar to Ch©u’s opinion. Ch©u (1990) even suggests 7 structures of Passive constructions namely:

Subject + bị / được + noun

Subject + bị / được + adjective

Subject + bị / được + verb (intransitive)

Subject + bị / được + verb (transitive)

Subject + bị / được + verb + noun

Subject + bị / được + subject – predicate relation

The modern advocates of Passive Expression include V©n (2002), Ban (2004). The two researchers have brought a new light into the Passive Expression analysis namely the theory of Functional grammar. In our research, the notion of Passive Expression is mainly based on the theory given by Ban (2004) which will be described in full detail as follows.

Ban classifies grammatical the function of “bÞ”, “®­îc” into three sub groups: lexical verb, modal verb and passive function words. As lexical verbs, “bÞ”, “®­îc” have two constructions :

“BÞ”. “®­îc” +Noun(noun phrase)

Con thá bÞ ®¹n.

Em bÐ ®­îc c¸i bót rÊt ®Ñp.

(Ban, DiÖp Quang, 2004:210)

The subject of passive construction is not affected by the predicator in the embedded sentence as in the following examples:

Unluckily the parents of this child died very early.

Fortunately, both of her two sons are good at math.

In spoken language the clichÐ “ c¸i” is often included in these sentences:

Em bÐ nµy bÞ c¸i bè mÑ mÊt sím.

Bµ Êy ®­îc c¸i hai ®øa con ®Òu häc giái.

(Ban, DiÖp Quang, 2004:210)

As modal verbs, “bÞ” ®­îc” can combine with verb (effective or ineffective), adjective, preposition as in the following examples.

He is allowed to go to the theater.

They are allowed to park their cars here.

How are you?

If this statue was made of copper, it would be so valuable.

(Ban, DiÖp Quang, 2004:211)

As passive formal words, “bÞ”, “®­îc” have distinctive usage in the structure of passive constructions in Vietnamese. The following sentence is taken as an example:

(Ban, DiÖp Quang, 2004:210)

In passive constructions, Predicator is an embedded sentence (gi¸ng cÊp) in which the subject can be absent and the predicate must be a transitive verb. The subject in the embedded sentence and the subject of the passive sentence do not refer to a same object. This requirement is to distinguish “bÞ”, “®­îc” as formal word’s passive voice and “bÞ”, “®­îc” as modal verbs.

A general syntactic structure of a passive sentence in Vietnamese is as follows:

The sentence “Th­ ®­îc Gi¸p göi cho TÝ” is analyzed as follows:

Following Halliday, M. the passive subjects in Ban (2004) pattern have the following semantic roles:

The formal words “bị” and “được” are always present. This requirements help to distinguish passive expression with neutral sentence in the following examples.

(1) Thuyền được (họ) đẩy ra xa (passive expression)

(2) ThuyÒn đẩy xa (neutral sentences)

Among the common ways of expressing the agent is the structure suggested by DiÖp, Q. B. as in the following examples:

The letter was sent to Ty by Giap.

In Vietnamese, the agent or the actor is rarely indicated in the passive sentence. The following sentence is taken as an example:

“Bỉ vỏ” đ· viết xong.

“Bỉ vỏ” has been written already.

Nguyªn Hồng (1957: 8)

In some special cases, the Vietnamese use the preposition words “bởi”, “do”, “do (là) của” … to denote the action. The followings are the most used structures:

N₁ + bị / được + V + bởi + N₂

N₂ N₂

Th¶n, Nguyễn Kim (1977: 199)

N_{1 +} V + bởi + N₂

Gãc là một h×nh tạo bởi hai nửa đường thẳng xuất ph¸t từ một điểm.

N₁ V N₂

The angle is composed of two lines originating from one point.

Th¶n, Nguyễn Kim(1977: 199)

N₂ + do + N₁ + V

Bªnh lao do vi trïng Koch sinh ra.

N₂ N₁ V₁

The tuberculosis is caused by Koch virus.

Ninh, §¸i Xu©n (1978: 30)

N₂ + (là) cña + N₁ + Vietnamese

Xe nµy lµ cña NhËt s¶n xuÊt.

This car is produced in Japan.

Ban, DiÖp Quang(1992:127)

3.2.3 Vietnamese Passive Usage

Extra-linguistic/ pragmatic factors are related to Information structure, Theme – rheme theory mentioned by Th¾ng (2003 ), Gi¸p (2004 ), V©n (2002) and ThuyÕt (1999).

Linguistic factors include lexical meaning of subject, the companion of adjunct, and lexical meaning of verbs, which have been analyzed by ThuyÕt (1987) and Quý (2003).

3.2.3.1. Extra- linguistic factors

According to Th¾ng (2003) and Gi¸p (2004) in Vietnamese the passive structure is used to place the new information in the rheme, the given information in the theme. The following sentence is taken as examples:

a. Bän c«n ®å hµnh hung anh Nam.

A group of ruffians have beaten Nam.

b. Anh Nam bÞ bän c«n ®å hµnh hung.

Nam has been beaten by a group of ruffians.

Supposing that Nam was the given information. When the information structure is obeyed, the given information precedes the new information. The example b - “Nam” - the given information - precedes the new information - “ a group of ruffians”. As Th¾ng stated if “Nam” is “given information”, sentence b “Anh Nam bÞ bän c«n ®å hµnh hung” “Nam has beaten by a group of ruffians,” sounds more natural in Vietnamese.

ThuyÕt (1999; 227) suggests the usage of passive expressions in Vietnamese as follows: Given information precedes the new information, which is just for the purpose of impression. Following is one example:

“ Gi÷a lóc ng­êi thanh niªn VN ®ang ngËp ngõng trong qu¸ khø ®Õn tËn cæ th× ThÕ L÷ ®­a cho hä c¸i h­¬ng vÞ ph­¬ng xa. T¸c gi¶ “mÊy vÇn th¬” liÒn ®­îc t«n lµm ®­¬ng thêi ®Ö nhÊt thi sÜ”

(Hoµi Thanh - Hoµi Ch©n, 1998: 57)

The passive expression is also used to avoid an awkward or ungrammatical sentence. This is realized by using the same subject. This is illustrated in the example as follows:

“…Nh­ng cã nh÷ng chÞ võa c­êi võa nãi hån nhiªn víi ta cã khi vµi h«m sau ta kh«ng gÆp l¹i hä n÷a. Hä cã thÓ ng· xuèng ë hµng ®Çu ë cuéc chiÕn tranh. Hä cã thÓ bÞ b¾t giam, bÞ ®¸nh b»ng gËy géc s¾t, bÞ quay ®iÖn, bÞ ghim vµo ®Çu mám ngãn tay,..”

(Anh §øc,1965:289)

(They could be arrested, beaten with iron sticks, electrocuted and had their fingers pinned)

According to V©n (2002: 228) the voice system is strictly associated with the feature of Markness. In a declarative clause, when the marked theme can be any constituent except the agent, the clause is in the passive voice. The following examples are taken from V©n (2002: 228). Active sentence: C­êng nÊu c¬m nµy ngon (unmarked theme)

Passive sentence: C¬m nµy ®­îc C­êng nÊu ngon (marked theme)

The choice of passive constructions also allows the next system of choice that is Desirable (mong muèn) which consists of two sub -groups: desirable (mong muèn) and undesirable (kh«ng mong muèn). The following are quoted from V©n (2002, 228) as well:

C¬m ®­îc C­êng nÊu ngon (desirable)

The rice was well cooked by C­êng

In Vietnamese the lexical meaning of the grammatical Subject somehow decides the type of sentence: Active or passive ones. This has been mentioned by ThuyÕt (1999), Quý (2003) and some others.

ThuyÕt (1999) divides Vietnamese passive expressions into 2 types: “BÞ/®­îc” including expressions and non - “BÞ/®­îc” expressions. Lexical meaning of subject here refers to whether the Subject is animate or inanimate. According to ThuyÕt the passive sentence with the inanimate Subject needs some complement or adjunct be natural. In ThuyÕt ‘s idea the two following sentences are accepted in terms of syntax but unaccepted in pragmatics: “C¬m bÞ ¨n”(Cooked rice has been eaten) and “Nhµ ®· x©y” (House has been built/was built). The first is BÞ/®­îc including sentence with inanimate subject. The second one is Non - bÞ/®­îc passive sentence also with animate subject.

To be pragmatically accepted in Vietnamese such sentences need either subject complement or sentence adjunct as in the following sentences:

“My cooked rice has been eaten (by somebody)”.

“The house was quickly built/finished ”

The two above sentences sound natural because they have been added with the modifier, agent phrase and adverb.

The second point mentioned by ThuyÕt is the ambiguous meaning caused by “bÞ/®­îc” in sentence with an animate subject . The sentence “Hæ b¾t råi” can be understood as “ Hæ bÞ b¾t råi” (the tiger has been caught) or “Hæ b¾t ai ®ã råi” (the tiger has caught somebody).

Sharing the shame view, Quý (2003) even generalizes a rule of forming passive sentences based on the lexical meaning of verbs and subjects. Quý divides effective verbs into two types: Physically effective verbs (vÞ tõ hµnh ®éng lµm ®èi t­îng biÕn ®æi vÒ tr¹ng th¸i vËt chÊt) and Spiritual effective verbs (vÞ tõ hµnh ®éng lµm ®èi t­îng biÕn ®æi tr¹ng th¸i tinh thÇn).

In the case of physical effective verbs Quý suggests an order of denotative meaning of Noun/ Noun phrase acting as the subject of sentence. The rule is illustrated in the table below:

1.Human beings a. Persons who serve others a’. adult

b. Person who are served b’. children

2. Animals a. big/strong animal

b. small/weak animal

3. Inanimate a. instrument

b. natural phenomenon, which affects surroundings

c. non – instrument (VËt phi c«ng cô)

Nouns and noun phrases in part b and b’ in type 1, b in type 2 and b and c in type 3 are often the subject of passive expressions. Part a on the other hand, is often the subject of active sentence.

One example is the verb “sinh” and “®Î” in Vietnamese ( “deliver a baby” and/ “to be born” ) which exit in both active and passive expressions. The distinguishing feature between “active” and “passive” is the denotative meaning of the subject especially if it is a male, animate subject. Following are some examples to illustrate the point:

- S¶n phô buång sè 5 sinh vµo lóc 4 giê s¸ng.

The pregnant woman in Room No. 5 delivered the baby at 4am.

Tý was born at the 4am.

(Mr.) T­ was born on 30/May/1942.

- Trøng nµy ®Î s¸ng nay.

This egg was laid off this morning.

- Con gµ m¸i nµy míi ®Î s¸ng nay.

This hen delivered an egg this morning.

Quý (2003) believes that with effective verbs (vÞ tõ t¹o t¸c), passive constructions can be formed usually with the presence of adjuncts showing aspect, mood or circumstances (thÓ, ph­¬ng thøc, chu c¶nh). Following are some examples:

Nhµ nµy ®· x©y xong.

The house has been built.

Nhµ nµy x©y kü l¾m.

The house was built well.

In contrast with the following sentence which is unaccepted in Vietnamese: “Nhµ nµy x©y?? (The house was/is built). These sentences when added with adjuncts or complements or even question words sound natural in Vietnamese.

In the case of spiritual effective verbs, passive expressions rarely exist. Spiritual transitive verbs in her quoted group include: dç, dç dµnh (comfort/soothe), an ñi (console/comfort), khuyÕn khÝch, khÝch lÖ (encourage), do¹, h¨m do¹, ®e do¹ (threaten), ®e nÑt, uy hiÕp (threaten), b¾t n¹t (bully), nÞnh (flatter), chiÒu, nu«ng chiÒu, c­ng chiÒu (please, indulge), chöi rña, nguyÒn rña (curse, damn ), l¨ng m¹, tho¸ m¹ (insult), khñng bè (terror, terrorize), can ng¨n (dissuade), r¨n ®e (warn), mua chuéc (bribe), khuyªn nhñ (advice), d¹y, d¹y dç, gi¸o dôc (train educate), rÌn luyÖn, ®µo t¹o (exercise).

Some examples of uncommon passive expressions of this type are the following sentences:

a. Th»ng bÐ nµy dç m·i kh«ng nÝn.

The boy kept crying even though he was soothed.

b. Con chã nµy d¹y kh«ng ®­îc.

The dog cannot be tamed.

c. Líp kü s­ nµy ®µo t¹o ch­a ®Õn n¬i ®Õn chèn.

These groups of engineers have not been trained to the meet the requirement.

d. C¸i «ng Bao C«ng t¸i thÕ kia ®õng hßng mµ mua chuéc.

Alive Bao C«ng can not be bribed.

e. C¸i ®å mÊt nÕt kia th× r¨n ®e sao ®­îc.

How can this spoilt (child) be trained !

Quý (2003) further explains the rule with one grammar structure:

Verb+ direct object+ indirect object

Verb + direct object + indirect object Ch¶i + tãc + bÐ

The other way of understanding is based on the semantic role of the beneficiary. In the above example , the relation between tãc and bÐ is no longer the possessive one. In fact, it is considered as the relation between two objects (indirect and direct object ) :

Following are some more examples in the same group of active sentences with only one corresponding passive:

b. Chñ nî/ nÝu ¸o nã/ (®ßi tiÒn).

The lender/ hold his shirt/ take money back .

b’.Nã /bÞ /chñ nî / nÝu ¸o /(®ßi tiÒn.)

He /functional word /lender/ hold shirt/ (take money back)

b’’. Aã cña nã/ bÞ /chñ nî/ nÝu/( ®Ó ®ßi tiÒn).

He shirt /functional word /lender/ hold /( take money back)

c. Mét tªn c­íp /bãp cæ nã.

One robber/ hold his neck

c. Nã /bÞ /mét tªn c­íp/ bãp cæ.

He/ functional word/ one robber/ hold neck

c”. Cæ nã/ bÞ/ mét tªn c­íp/ bãp.

His neck /functional word /one robber/ hold.

d.Bé tr­ëng/ b¾t tay/ nã.

The minister/ shake / his hand.

d’. Nã/ ®­îc/ bé tr­ëng/ b¾t tay.

He/ functional word/ minister/ shake hand.

d”. Tay nã/ ®­îc/ bé tr­ëng/ b¾t.

His hand/ functional word/ minister/shake.

In the above examples such sentences as b’ c’ d’ are accepted while b” c” d” are rarely accepted in Vietnamese. The combination between direct object and indirect object is understood as the possession : aã cña nã, cæ cña nã, tay cña nã (his shirt, his neck, his arm).

In addition, some examples of active sentences with two corresponding passive sentences are given as follows.

a. C« gi¸o/ röa tay/ cho/ nã.

The teacher/ wash hand/ adjunct/ him.

a’. Nã/ ®­îc/ c« gi¸o/ röa tay cho.

He /functional word/ teacher/ wash/ hand/ adjunct.

a’’. Tay nã/ ®­îc/ c« gi¸o/ röa cho (s¹ch råi).

He hand /functional word/ teacher/ wash/ adjunct/(clean).

b. ¤ng lang /buéc/ ch©n nã/ l¹i.

Herb doctor/ tie/ his leg/ adjunct.

b’. Nã/ ®­îc/ «ng lang/ buéc ch©n(l¹i råi).

He/ functional word/ herb doctor/ tie/ leg/ adjunct.

b”. Ch©n nã/ ®­îc/ «ng lang/ buéc/ l¹i.

His leg/ functional word/ herb doctor/ tie/ adjunct.

In the above example a”, b”, c” with such phrases as röa tay cho nã, c¾t tãc cho nã (cut/hair/prep/him), mÆc ¸o cho nã (dress/ shirt/ prep/ him), ch¶i ®Çu cho nã (comb/hair/prep/her, mæ d¹ dµy cho nã (operate/stomach/prep/him), “nã” is considered as beneficiary. Therefore, there are two corresponding passive constructions from each active sentence.

In short, the linguistic factors participate to the naturalness of passive constructions in Vietnamese are the lexical meaning of the grammatical Subject, Verb and the some certain adjuncts.

Sum-up remarks of the Vietnamese passive

In this part, the author attempts to clarify the complex and controversy of Vietnamese passive mentioned in the previous parts. This part is to answer the following questions:

+ Is there passive voice in Vietnamese?

+ If there is, what is the typical pattern of Vietnamese passive?

+Does it include passive functional words? Moreover, if it does what are the compulsory passive functional words?

+What are the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic features of the Vietnamese passive pattern?

Voice in Vietnamese

Among these questions, the answer for the first questions is somehow related to the first chapter: Voice in languages and related concepts. In this chapter, quoted from Asher R.E, (1994) the term voice can be defined in two ways: narrow and broad definition. The narrow definition refers to morphological categories (as in Greek/ Latin) which would refuse the term of voice in both English and Vietnamese. However, a definition of voice that can be applied in all languages has not been found out.

This term, as Asher, R. E (1994) suggests, can be defined in terms of “syntactic constructions with reference to specific grammatical characteristics”. This implies that voice exist in all languages but with different surface structures. The concept of voice in English and Vietnamese shares the common feature of the semantic roles of the sentence subjects. If the agent is in the subject, the sentence is active. If any component except the agent is the grammatical subject, the sentence is the passive . The difference is in the fact that English voice is related to verb forms while the Vietnamese voice is related to lexical and grammatical means.

Pattern of the Vietnamese passive

The second question related to the pattern of Vietnamese passive constructions have different answers among linguists. Different structures suggested by linguists included the following structures: N + bÞ/®­îc + V + bëi + N, N + V + bëi + N, N + do/cña + N + V, N + lµ (cña) + N + V and some others.

If the passive constructions do need passive functional words, which among the following functional words ( bÞ, ®­îc, ph¶i, do, b»ng, bëi, lµ cña ) are considered as passive functional words. Each linguist seems to be logical in his or her supported examples.

Among these different views, the view of Ban, D.Q. (2004) sounds the most persuasive. In his latest version Ban, D.Q. (2004) considers sentences containing bằng, do, bởi and của to be sentences with dependent predicator là. One common thing among these types of sentences is that the formal word là can be inserted in the middle of the sentence, in front of bằng, do, bởi and của.

The sentences with bằng is the relational sentences (related to material) as in the following examples.

C¸i ¸o nµy b»ng lôa t¬ t»m.

C¸i ¸o nµy là b»ng lôa t¬ t»m.

The blouse is made of silk.

The sentences with do, bởi is the relational sentence showing the origin or the source:

Bµi th¬ nµy do mét b¹n trÎ lµm.

Bµi th¬ nµy là do mét b¹n trÎ lµm.

The poem is written by a young person.

The sentences with của show the relation of possession and possession- origin

C¸i xe nµy cña Gi¸p,

C¸i xe nµy là cña Gi¸p.

The motorbike is Giap ‘s.

Xe nµy cña h·ng X s¶n xuÊt.

Xe nµy là cña h·ng X s¶n xuÊt.

The car is produced by the X company.

The way of classification based on the function of the words bÞ, ®­îc deals with the many different structures relating to bÞ ,®­îc suggested by other linguists. Ban, D.Q. (2004) points out the different function of bÞ ,®­îc as lexical verbs, modal verbs and passive functional verbs

The way of classification bằng, do, bởi and của in the group of sentences with dependent predicator là is the most suitable way in dealing with these functional words. On one hand it helps to sort out the passive functional words including bÞ ,®­îc only. On the other hand, it confirms the unique features of Vietnamese grammar, which is advantageous for learners in language learning in general and Vietnamese leaning in particular.

Ban, D.Q. (2004) agrees with many other linguists that Vietnamese is not an inflectional language and Vietnamese, therefore, has no change in the verb forms. The difference between Ban, D.Q. (2004)’s passive pattern and others lies in his opinion of analyzing the passive expressions under the combination of the traditional and modern view. Instead of analyzing the sentence into group of words as the common way in traditional grammar, Ban analyses the sentence into Subject and the predicator, which can be an embedded sentence. He also follows M. Halliday in analyzing the passive subjects in different semantic roles. This helps to explain the passive constructions with the subject’s semantic roles of arrival, place that are difficult to explain in other linguists’ theory. Under traditional view, Ban, Diệp Quang claims that Passive Expressions in Vietnamese can be expressed with formal words “bị” “được” and “word order”. Ban, Diệp Quang (2004: 209) suggests three conditions to form a passive expression structures:

The first condition is the subject in passive sentence semantically affected by transitive verbs in the predicator (/ embedded sentence). This condition is to distinguish the subject of passive expressions with the subject of active expressions with modal verb “được”.

(1) Thuyền được (họ) đẩy ra xa (passive expression)

(2) C¸c anh được để xe ở đ©y (active expression)

“Được” in the second sentence is in fact a modal verb because the subject of “được” and the verb “để” is only one.

The second condition is presence of formal words “bị” and “được”. This requirement helps to distinguish passive expressions with the neutral one. Following are some examples:

(1) Thuyền được (họ) đẩy ra xa (passive expression).

(2) ThuyÒn đẩy xa (neutral sentences).

The idea of passive constructions and neutral sentences in Ban, D. Q. (2004) is different from his own idea in previous publications and different from other researchers. In Ban‘s previous publication the neutral sentence is included in the passive constructions. However, in his latest publication the neutral sentence is identified in contrast with the passive sentence and the so-called thematic sentence. The three following sentences are to illustrate the point.

(1) Thuyền được (họ) đẩy ra xa (passive expression)

(2) ThuyÒn đẩy xa (neutral sentence)

(3) Thuyền, họ đẩy ra xa råi (thematic sentence)

The third condition: predicator is an embedded sentence (gi¸ng cÊp) in which the subject can be absent and the predicate must be a transitive verb. The subject in the embedded sentence and the subject of passive sentence do not refer to the same object. This requirement is to distinguish “bÞ”, “®­îc” as passive functional word and “bÞ”, “®­îc” as modal verbs. The neutral sentence is the central concept in solving the questions above. The neutral sentence in his idea is the passive construction (O-V) in other linguists. The neutral sentence is related to the thematic sentence with the presence of the added subject. This helps to answer the question whether the Vietnamese includes the thematic sentences or passive sentences .

However if Ban (2004) ideas are followed, one point should be accepted here is that there do not always exist any group of thematic – neutral –passive constructions. Consider the following examples:

Th»ng bÐ nµy dç m·i kh«ng nÝn (Neutral sentence)

Th»ng bÐ nµy ng­êi ta dç m·i kh«ng nÝn (Thematic sentence)

The passive construction in this case (Th»ng bÐ nµy ®­îc dç m·i kh«ng nÝn) sounds unnatural. The sentence can be accepted if it is added with other functional words for the emphasis purposes like the following ones:

Th»ng bÐ nµy ®­îc(ng­êi ta) dç m·i mµ kh«ng nÝn

According to Ban (2004), a general syntactic structure of a passive sentence in Vietnamese is as follows:

Subject1 (passive)	Passive Functional words“bÞ”,“®­îc”	Predicator (embedded sentence)
	Passive functional words	Subject2 (active)	Predicator2 (transitive verb)	Complement object

Semantic features of Vietnamese passive

Under the modern view based on the functional grammar, Ban (2004) suggests the following semantic roles of subjects in passive constructions: Goal, Recipient, Arrival, Beneficiary, Maleficiary and Place. This is the updated way in analyzing passive constructions in Vietnamese, which helps to tackle with structures difficult to analyze in the traditional criteria of Subject and Predicate like in this sentence:

T­êng treo ®Çy tranh.

The wall is covered with so many pictures.

In the traditional classification of Subject and Predicate, this sentence is in the discussion between whether it is the passive sentence or the inverted sentence of “Tranh treo ®Çy t­êng”( Many pictures covered the whole wall) or the thematic sentence “Tranh, ng­êi ta treo ®Çy t­êng”. The discussion is whether the word “T­êng” is the grammatical subject of the passive sentence or the adjunct in the inverted sentence.

Semantic features of Vietnamese passive are derived from the lexical meaning of the passive functional words bÞ” ,“®­îc” and the passive subjects and the transitive verbs.

One distinguishing feature of Vietnamese passive lies in the compulsory passive functional words “bÞ” and “®­îc”. Semantically “bÞ” is associated with negative attitude of the speakers while “®­îc” is associated with the positive attitude of the speakers. The exception in joking like C¸i ¸o h¬i bÞ ®Ñp ®Êy (the blouse is so nice), however, is not the passive constructions.

The type of nouns and their accompanied features in the passive subjects partly decide the naturalness of passive sentences. The criteria here are based on the scale of animate/ inanimate nouns, instrumental/ non-instrumental noun, adult/ children, serving person/ served person.

There is a group of verbs in Vietnamese rarely found in passive forms. These verbs often are spiritual effective verbs like dç, dç dµnh (comfort/ soothe), an ñi (console /comfort), and some others.

The next distinguishing feature of Vietnamese passive is derived from the way of ellipsis in Vietnamese. From one structure

C« gi¸o/ ch¶i/ tãc/ bÐ

The teacher/ comb/hair/ the girl’s

There are two ways of understanding: possessive relation ch¶i tãc cña bÐ and beneficiary relation ch¶i tãc cho bÐ. In the possessive relation, there is one accepted passive construction with the animate passive subject (bÐ). In the beneficiary relation, there are two passive constructions with both the animate subject (bÐ) and inanimate subjects (tãc). Usually these passive sentences are added with adjuncts (cho in this example) and adverbs( cho th¼ng in this example)

Usage of Vietnamese passive

The choice between active and passive construction depends on both extra -linguistic factors and linguistic factors.

Extra-linguistic/ pragmatic factors are related to Information structure, Theme – rheme theory mentioned by Th¾ng (2003 ), Gi¸p (2004 ), V©n (2002) and ThuyÕt (1999).

Linguistic factors include lexical meaning of subject, the companion of adjunct, and lexical meaning of verbs, which have been analyzed by ThuyÕt (1987) and Quý (2003).

In short, based on their meaning, not on structure, Passive constructions can be said to exist in Vietnamese. In the view of passive voice commonly found in inflectional languages, Vietnamese has no passive voice but constructions with passive meaning. In the broader view of passive voice suggested by Asher R.E. in The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, the passive voice does exist in Vietnamese.

In conclusion, one common point agreed among our researchers is the existence of expressions of passive meaning. The passive voice in Vietnamese, is semantically not characterized by the inflection in verbs but by lexical terms, word order and syntactic structures.

Hence, the passive definition of Ban (2004) will be the basis for Vietnamese passive constructions in the part of contrastive analysis between English passive constructions and the Vietnamese ones.

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