Chapter Two: Passive Voice in English

2.2.1. English passive constructions in traditional grammar

In this part, the passive comes when the object is a noun phrase, a finite clause, and a non-finite clause. However, when a reflexive pronoun is in the object, there is no corresponding passive construction. When the object is a finite clause, there are two passive constructions. The other common passive construction is "It was said ..." like in the following sentences.

S V O

S V C

S V O

The structure S-V-O allows perfect infinitive passive when there is difference in tenses between the action in the subordinate clause and the main clause.

Main clause Subordinate clause

(Murphy, 2000: 90)

When the object is a non -finite clause (infinitive and ing- participle), there is no passive constructions. However, for a limited group of verbs like advise, insist, propose, recommend, suggest, agree, arrange, determine, demand, decide, etc. the passive construction is “that ... should +past participle ".

He decided to sell the house.

S V O

(Thomson & Martinet, 1986: 264)

When both Oi- Od are noun phrases, both can be used as the subject of the passive sentence. When Oi is a noun phrase and Od is a finite clause, there are two ways of passivization by the subject of the passive being either Oi (more common) or Od in the corresponding active sentences. When Oi is a noun phrase and Od is a non -finite clause (to infinitive), the subject of the passive construction is with the Oi only. When Oi is a noun phrase and Od is a prepositional phrase, the passive construction starts with Oi. This is illustrated with the following examples:

S V Oi Od

(Quirk and Green Baum, 1972: 373)

S V Oi Od

(Thomson and Martinet, 1986: 264)

S V Oi Od

(Quirk and Greenbaum, 1972: 371)

Similarly, the idiomatic expression is found in the same group with the following structure of Verb (V) + Noun phrase (NP) + Preposition (Pr) +Noun phrase (NP). The passive construction can have the subject of either noun phrase.

They had made good use of the house.

V NP NP

(Quirk and Green Baum, 1972: 372)

In this group there consist of the following idiomatic expressions: Make allowance for, Put a Stop to, Give way to, and Make fun of, Set fire to, Give place to, Make a fuss over/about, Take account of, Keep pace with, Make room for, Take advantage of, Lose sight of, Make use of, Take care of, Lose touch with, Pay attention to, Take note of, Put an end to, and Take notice of.

From the S - V - O - C (- A) structure

In this sentence pattern, the object of active sentence is always a noun phrase, which usually becomes the subject of the passive constructions. The difference in structures are in the various complement types (Noun phrase, adjective phrase, to-infinitive clause, bare - infinitive clause, ing - participle clause, ed - participle clause). However, with bare –infinitive clauses, causative verbs ( have, let, make) take a bare- infinitive in their infinitive clauses but "make" takes to- infinitive. The two following pairs of sentences are taken as the examples to illustrate the structural differences:

S V O C

(Quirk and Green Baum, 1972: 368)

S V O C

S V to- inf. clause

(Quirk and Green Baum, 1972: 364)

Special passive constructions

The typical passive constructions in English are BE+ Past Participle. Other constructions with passive meaning include Get + Past participle, Become + past participle, - Ing form with passive meaning (Need-Want-Deserve-Require + Ving).

Get + Past participle is used restrictively to constructions without expressed animate agent and it is natural to find a strong reference for human subjects. This example is taken from Lakoff (1971). In this example the sentence b seems odd.

1. 
   A house can be built of stone , brick or clay.
   
2. 
   A house can get built of stone , brick or clay.
   

(Thomson & Martinet, 1986: 265)

This sentence is understood as a passive construction if it is plus with “by -phrase”. Otherwise, it is understood as middle voice sentence referring to the state.

Semantically, according to T. Givãn in English Grammar - Function based Introduction (1993:67), “the major difference between Be passive and Get passive involves the matter of control. In the Be -passive constructions, the demoted agent, even when it is absent, is invested with purpose and control over the event. In Get passive, it is the promoted patient that retains agentive control. This may be seen from the interpretation of purpose adverbs”. This feature is illustrated in the following examples:

a. How was he killed?

(What did some one do to kill him?)

b. How did he get killed?

(What did he do to get killed?)

Finally, the difference between Be passive and Get passive lies in the “involvement and adversity”. The involvement here is the responsibility, which is vested in the hearer, as in (Lakoff, 1971):

(Quirk, R. et al:803)

These constructions with passive meaning can have two forms with each verb:

(Murphy: 115)

(Swan, M.: 280)

The causative structure ‘s usage is similar to that of Be – passive. The causative structures consist of two structures “Have + Obj + PII” and “Get +Obj+ PII”. “Get +Obj+ PII” is found more in informal languages. It can be found in all tenses. In the imperative “get’ is more natural than “have”.

(Present perfect)

(Progressive present)

(Murphy: 92)

Pseudo-passive

Pseudo-passive is a sentence active in form but passive in meaning. The subject of pseudo - passive is often the inanimate subject. Pseudo-passive is the typical non – agent passive constructions. The sentence The book sells very well is one pseudo - passive sentence.

2.2.2 The phrase of By and With

According to Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. (1976:160) the agentive or instrument can be expressed by a by – phrase. However, only the instrument can be expressed by a with phrase.

The window was broken by a ball (accepted sentence).

The window was broken by a boy (accepted sentence).

The window was broken with a ball (accepted sentence).

The window was broken with a boy (unaccepted sentences).

The agentive by- phrase also occurs as a post-modifier to signify authorship: a novel by Tolstoy, a picture by Degas,etc.

Another distinguishing feature of by phrase is in the Get- passive in which the by phrase helps to identify the voice of the sentence. The two sentences below help to illustrate this point.

The eggs got broken ( middle voice).

The eggs got broken by Mary (passive voice).

In the examples, the by – phrase helps to identify whether the sentence is in the middle voice or in the passive voice.

2.2.3 Usage of English passive voice

Different linguists use different expressions to describe the English passive usage. All these expressions have common points in nature, which are the non- agent emphasis (non-agent promotion) and the agent ignorance( agent demotion). Among these expressions, the one used by Asher, R.(1994) seems to be the most persuasive ones. His suggestions not only cover all other linguists’ suggestions but also pave the new way in understanding the passive construction, which suggest the relations between the passive constructions and other construction based on the two pragmatic effects: Agent demotion and patient promotion.

Agent demotion

Asher, R. (1994:4941) shortly suggests that “…the passive assign it (the agent) a periphery role in syntax even if it is encoded”. This statement is identical with other linguists’ expressions like unknown, unimportant, obvious agent or more interest on the action than on the agent.

Asher, R (1994:4941) also suggests that pragmatic effect of Agent demotion unifies the passive with honorific forms (the usage of plural forms for even single agent), indefinite person constructions involving indefinite pronouns corresponding to “they”,“one”and “we”.

Non-agent promotion

This pragmatic effect is not separated from the pragmatic effect of Agent demotion. Actually, the two pragmatic effects of Agent demotion and Non-agent promotion are like two sides of the same coin. This pragmatic effect of Non-agent promotion is similar to other linguists’ expressions like “the passive is used when we are more interested in the action than the person who does it”.

However, Asher, R. fails to give the reasons related to linguistics and the speaker’s psychology. The passive is sometimes preferable for psychological reasons. The following examples are taken from Thomson and Martinet (1996: 267). The passive constructions are used to have the long and heavy expression at the end of the clause.

I was annoyed by Mary wanting to tell everybody what to do.

The following example of psychological reason is also taken from Thomson and Martinet (1996: 267). The speaker may use it to disclaim responsibility for disagreeable announcement.

Employer: Overtime rates are being reduced.

Meanwhile the active form is used for the agreeable announcements.

We are going to increase overtime rates.

Finally, Halliday,M. suggests that the passive constructions are chosen when we want to put the news at the end of the sentence and this is often the agent – including passive constructions. The following examples are also from Thomson and Martinet (1996: 267).

John is painting my portrait.

(Active form so that the news my portrait goes at the end of the sentence).

Nice picture. Yes, it was painted by my grandmother.

(Passive construction so that the news the painter can go at the end).

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