Acknowledgements


Contrast of English and Vietnamese passive structures pragmatically



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4.3. Contrast of English and Vietnamese passive structures pragmatically


This part is aimed at finding out the factors decisive to the choice of : Active/passive, agent including/ non-agent passive expressions, Vietnamese passive expressions and substitutional structures.

4.3.1 Similarities


According to Asher (1994), Givãn (1996), Swan (1997), ThuyÕt (1998), V©n (2002), QuÝ (2003), Th¾ng (2004), Gi¸p (2004), the similarity between English passive constructions and the Vietnamese ones can be in two areas as follows: Information structure and the sentence focus.

In English and Vietnamese, the choice of the passive construction does allow the speakers or writers to follow the rules of Information structure and the sentence focus. That means in a context the given information usually comes first, the new information often comes later. In the following examples of English and Vietnamese, the given information comes first.

Nice picture” - “Yes, it was pained by my grandmother

Given information Cã mét con chuét trong thïng g¹o. s¾p bÞ con mÌo vå”.



Given information

There is a mouse in the rice jar. It’s going to be caught by our cat.

The pronoun “it” (in the first example) and (in the second example ) are the given information. These examples follow the universal rule of information structure that is given information preceding the new information.

The next similarity is the sentence focus. In both of two languages, in a passive sentence, the focus is often on the action - not on the doer.



The house next door has been bought (by a Mr. Jones)

(Thomson & Martinet: 267)

If we do know Mr. Jones, we would use the active “your father’s friend, Mr. Jones, has bought the house next door”. The situation is the same in the following example in Vietnamese:

Lóc Êy Quèc tÕ ca ®· ®­îc dÞch sang tiÕng ta råi”.

(By that time, international independence song had been translated into Vietnamese)

In these examples, we do not know the agent, or even if we know the agent, it is not important. The thing of our interest is the fact that the song had been translated rather than who did it.

In short, the similarity in passive construction usage between English passive constructions and the Vietnamese ones are in two areas of Information structure and the sentence focus. In both of two languages, the choice of passive is related to the fact that the given information comes first and the sentence focus is on the action.

4.3.2. English passive constructions and the Vietnamese equivalents


As it is mentioned in the theory, the pragmatic effects of the passive voice in English are related to two aspects namely agent demotion (agent defocusing) and patient promotion (patient focusing). These aspects themselves unify passive structure with other structures in different ways in different languages.

In English, the passive constructions of agent demotion are unified with honorific forms and indefinite personal contractions. While the non- agent structures focus on the action rather on the doer, agent – including structures emphasize the doer as the late new.

That means in English the passive voice has different emphasis in two structures:

S + BE+ PAST PARTICIPLE : patient promotion / agent demotion

S + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE+BY PHRASE: patient promotion-agent as the late news.

In this part, the author intends to find out the differences in Vietnamese structures which are the equivalents to the two English passive structures above. In order to obtain that goal, the author intends to firstly point out the difference in terms of structure in the two groups extensively. Then the frequency of these structures are counted. Finally some factors decisive to the usage of these structures are to be pointed out.

Among 600 collected English passive sentences, the Vietnamese translated versions are found with the frequency as follows:


Active sentence

156

26%

Neutral sentences

85

14%

Passive sentences

(non agent sentences

agent –including sentences)


207

135


82

34.5%

22.5%


12.%

Impersonal structures with “Ng­êi ta,Ta”

24

4%

Impersonal structures with verbs, modal verbs

83

13%

Special structures with existential, original and possessive markers “cã” “cña”:

13

2%


Idiomatic, cultural expressions, proper name

24

4%

Other structures

8

1.5%

Table: Vietnamese equivalents of English passive constructions

Among the 600 Vietnamese equivalents, the passive sentences are the biggest( 207 sentences =34.5%). Among the rest, active forms are most preferred to other constructions (156 =26%). The rank then is followed with the neutral sentences (85 =14%), impersonal sentences beginning with “Ng­êi ta, Ta”(24 =4%), impersonal sentences beginning with verbs (83 = 13%), idiomatic expressions (24 = 4%), existential, original and possessive structures with markers “cã” “cña”(13 =2%) and other structures(8 = 1.5%).

Among the 207 passive constructions, the non - agent sentences are 135 (22.5%). The neutral sentences, which are the passive constructions if added with and ®­îc , stands at the second rank. Following are some examples:

Neutral sentences

“It is raining heavily in the north. The radio says it has never rained as hard. My district must be flooded now

(F. Palmos:16)

“Ngoµi B¾c ®ang m­a to l¾m,..®µi hä loan thÕ, b¶o lµ m­a to ch­a tõng thÊy. Quª t«i l¹i lôt mÊt.”

(Ninh:23)

This finding is based on a year of study of successes and failures involving services in different countries.

Ph¸t hiÖn nµy dùa trªn cuéc nghiªn cøu vÒ nh÷ng thµnh c«ng vµ thÊt b¹i liªn quan ®Õn c¸c dÞch vô trong vßng mét n¨m ë nhiÒu n­íc kh¸c nhau.

( Special English no 53- Development report:17 )

“ChØ cã Tõ lµ cïng Kiªn ®¸nh ®Õn cöa sè 5 s©n bay T©n S¬n NhÊt råi míi hi sinh”.

(Ninh: 13)

Only Tu had fought together with Kien to the Gate no 5 of Saigon’ Tan Son Nhat airport. Then Tu was killed.

(F. Palmos:8)

Passive sentences

Tom whistled twice more , these signals were answered in the same way.

(M. Twain :139)

Tom l¹i huýt s¸o hai tiÕng n÷a, nh÷ng tÝn hiÖu ®ã l¹i ®­îc ®¸p l¹i nh­ hai lÇn tr­íc.



(N.M.HuyÒn and H. Ph­¬ng:157 )

Impersonal structures with verbs, modal verbs

When we are demobed, I will stop driving”.

(F. Palmos:39)

Gi¶i ngò, t«i sÏ th«i l¸i”.

(B. Ninh:54)

First the base is removed from the bottle. Then the bottle is turned upside down and the neck is attached to the base”

“Tr­íc hÕt c¾t ®¸y chai ra. Sau ®ã ®Ó óp ng­îc c¸i chai xuèng ®Ó cho cæ chai g¾n víi ®¸y chai..”

(Sunflower ,Feb. 2005:37)

“Government layers are expected to make proposals next month”.

Hy väng c¸c luËt s­ cña chÝnh phñ sÏ so¹n th¶o c¸c dù luËt vµo th¸ng tíi”.

( Special English , Jan. 2004- Economic Report: 27)

“ThËt ®óng lµ ch¼ng bót lùc nµo t¶ næi t©m tr¹ng cu¶ Kien trªn ®­êng phi vÒ phè nhµ, song còng ch¼ng bót nµo t¶ xiÕt t©m tr¹ng thÊt väng, ®Êt sôt d­íi ch©n khi anh vµo tíi s©n. §i s¬ t¸n hÕt c¶ råi”.

(B. Ninh:211 )

..People have evacuated..”

(F. Palmos:183)



Idiomatic, cultural expressions, proper name

“ They were spooked by their cards (which is) called advance”..

(F. Palmos:7)

Nh­ng bèn tay trinh s¸t trung ®oµn th× ®ang m¶i miÕt “tiÕn lªn”..

(B. Ninh:12)

“T«i t­ nhñ tr¸nh giÕt ng­¬× b»ng dao ..nh­ng mµ quen tay mÊt råi”.

(B. Ninh:25)

“…to avoid stabbing with bayonets but I have got used to it”

(F. Palmos:17)

Impersonal structures with “Ng­êi ta,Ta”

A gory knife had been found close to the murdered man, and it had been recognized by somebody as belonging to Muff Potter - so the story ran. In addition, it was said that a belated citizen had come upon Potter washing himself in the "branch" about one or two o'clock in the morning. In addition, that Potter had at once sneaked off - suspicious circumstances. especially the washing, which was not a habit with Potter. It was also said that the town had been ransacked for this "murderer" (the public are not slow in the matter of sifting evidence and arriving at a verdict), but that he could not be found. Horsemen had departed down all the roads in every direction, and the Sheriff "was confident" that he would be captured before night.”

(M. Twain:125)

Ng­êi ta t×m thÊy mét con dao vÊy m¸u ngay bªn c¹nh x¸c ng­êi bÞ giÕt vµ cã ng­êi nhËn ra con dao Êy lµ cña M©p Pot¬ - c©u truþªn ®­îc ®ån ®i nh­ vËy. Ng­êi ta nãi cã mét ng­êi trong lµng ®i ch¬i khuya vÒ b¾t gÆp M©p Pot¬ ®ang t¾m ngßi vµo lóc vµo lóc mét hai giê s¸ng, thÊy cã ng­êi, Pot¬ véi lÈn trèn ngay-®©y lµ mét tr­êng hîp rÊt kh¶ nghi, nhÊt lµ chuyÖn t¾m röa, mét viÖc mµ ch¼ng mÊy khi ng­êi ta thÊy h¾n lµm. Ng­êi ta cßn nãi kh¾p mäi n¬i trong lµng ®· bÞ kh¸m xÐt ®Ó t×m b¾t “hung thñ” (c«ng chóng kh«ng bao giê tá ra chËm ch¹p trong viÖc ph©n tÝch tØ mØ c¸c b»ng chøng vµ ®i ®Õn kÕt luËn) nh­ng kh«ng t×m thÊy. Ng­êi ta ®· cho ng­êi c­ìi ngùa ®i kh¾p c¸c ng¶ ®­êng ®uæi b¾t vµ viªn quËn tr­ëng “tin ch¾c” thÕ nµo còng sÏ b¾t ®­îc hung thñ tr­íc khi trêi tèi”

(N. M. HuyÒn & H. Ph­¬ng: 138)

“They felt like heroes in an instant. Here was a gorgeous triumph ; they were missed, they were mourned; hearts were breaking on their account; tears were being shed;

(M. Twain:152)

“ThÕ lµ lËp tøc chóng c¶, thÊy m×nh trë thµnh nh©n vËt anh hïng. ThËt lµ mét chiÕn th¾ng rùc rì; chóng ®­îc ng­êi ta nhí tiÕc; chóng ®­îc ng­êi ta khãc th­¬ng; cã nh÷ng tr¸i tim ®ang thæn thøc v× chóng; ng­êi ta ®ang nhá bao nhiªu lµ n­íc m¾t”



(N. M. HuyÒn & H. Ph­¬ng:137).

Special structures with existential, original and possessive markers “cã” “do, bëi” “cña”:

“These markers are found in the following extracts: “.. that it was conjectured at first”—“ lóc ®Çu ë nhµ ®o¸n”; “then the small raft had been missed” –“sau cã ng­êi mÊt chiÕc bÌ;” “speech given by Bishop Ethelbert Talbot” — “ bµi diÔn thuyÕt cña gi¸m môc Bishop Ethelbert Talbot” “all designed and built by the company” “chÝnh do c«ng ty nµy thiÕt kÕ vµ x©y dùng”

“He went on listening, and gathered by odds and ends that it was conjectured at first that the boys had got drowned while taking a swim; then the small raft had been missed; next, certain boys said the missing lads had promised that the village should "hear something" soon; the wise-heads had "put this and that together" and decided that the lads had gone off on that raft and would turn up at the next town below, presently; but towards noon the raft had been found, lodged against the Missouri shore some five or six miles below the village - and then hope perished; they must be drowned, else hunger would have driven them home by nightfall if not sooner. It was believed that the search for the bodies had been a fruitless effort merely because the drowning must have occurred in mid-channel, since the boys, being good swimmers, would otherwise have escaped to shore. This was Wednesday night. If the bodies continued missing until Sunday, all hope would be given over, and the funerals would be preached on that morning. Tom shuddered.”

(M. Twain:159)

“ Tom tiÕp tôc l¾ng tai nghe, ch¾p nèi nh÷ng mÈu chuyÖn kh«ng ®Çu kh«ng ®u«i vµo víi nhau, míi vì lÏ ra r»ng lóc ®Çu ë nhµ ®o¸n ba ®øa b¬i bÞ chÕt ®uèi; sau cã ng­êi mÊt chiÕc bÌ; råi ®Õn viÖc mÊy ®øa trÎ kÓ l¹i r»ng ba ®øa mÊt tÝch kia do¹ råi ®©y trong lµng “sÏ biÕt”; nh÷ng bé ãc s¸ng suèt ®· ghÐp viÖc nµy víi viÖc nä vµ ®i ®Õn chç nhÊt ®Þnh cho r»ng ba ®øa trë bÌ trèn ®i vµ ch¼ng bao l©u n÷a sÏ tíi thÞ trÊn ë m¹n d­íi; nh­ng vµo qu·ng gÇn tr­a, ng­êi ta t×m thÊy chiÕc bÌ bÞ g¹t vµo bê trªn s«ng Miduri ë mét chç c¸ch lµng chõng n¨m s¸u dÆm vÒ phÝa d­íi, vµ thÕ lµ mäi hy väng ®Òu tiªu tan; ch¾c ba ®øa ®· bÞ chÕt ®uèi råi, nÕu kh«ng, nÕu kh«ng muén nhÊt ®Õn tèi lµ cïng, ®ãi qu¸ còng bß vÒ nhµ. Ng­êi ta cho r»ng së dÜ ®· mß x¸c kh«ng cã kÕt qu¶,chØ v× ba ®øa ®· chÕt ®uèi ë gi÷a s«ng,nÕu kh«ng chóng nã vèn lµ nh÷ng ®øa b¬i giái, thÕ nµo còng b¬i tho¸t lªn bê ®­îc.Lóc ®ã lµ tèi thø t­. NÕu cho ®Õn chñ nhËt mµ kh«ng t×m ®­îc thÊy x¸c, th× døt kho¸t ph¶i lµm lÔ cÇu hån ngay s¸ng h«m Êy th«i. Tom rïng m×nh.”

(N. M. HuyÒn & H. Ph­¬ng: 152).

“The bottle goes through seven machines, all designed and built by the company”.

“C¸c chai nµy ®­îc ®­a qua b¶y c¸i m¸y, tÊt c¶ c¸c m¸y nµy ®Òu chÝnh do c«ng ty nµy thiÕt kÕ vµ x©y dùng”.

(Sunflower ,Feb. 2005:37)

Pierr de Coubertin got the idea for this phrase from a speech given by Bishop EtheletTablot at a service for Olympic champions during the 1908 Olympic Games. Pierr de Coubertin ®· nghÜ ra c©u nãi nµy tõ mét bµi diÔn thuyÕt cña Gi¸m môc EtheletTablot t¹i buæi th¸nh lÔ dµnh cho c¸c gi¶i v« ®Þch .

(Special English, August 2004)

As mentioned above the passive voice in English has different emphasis in two structures:

S + BE+ PAST PARTICIPLE : patient promotion / agent demotion

S + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE+BY PHRASE: patient promotion-agent as the late news.

The English non – agent passive sentences S + BE+ PAST PARTICIPLE are often associated with two features namely agent demotion and patient promotion. Based on the contrast, the feature of agent demotion and patient promotion in Vietnamese are expressed with following structures:

- Active sentences ( with the added passive subject )

- Neutral sentences

- Passive sentences (non -agent sentences)

- Impersonal structures with “Ng­êi ta,Ta”

- Impersonal structures with verbs, modal verbs

- Special structures with existential, original and possessive markers “cã” “do” “bëi” “cña”.

In the case of the English agent –including passive construction S + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE + BY PHRASE, the feature of patient promotion is expressed with the following Vietnamese structures:

- Active sentence

- Passive sentences (agent –including sentence).

The emphasis is expressed with some causative structures with do, b»ng, bëi with the emphasis markers chÝnh do, chÝnh bëi.

In short, the passive constructions in English have various equivalents in Vietnamese. The pragmatic effects of agent demotion and patient promotion are expressed with the following structures: Active sentences ( with the added passive subject ), Neutral sentences, Passive sentences (non -agent sentences), Impersonal structures with “Ng­êi ta,Ta”, Impersonal structures with verbs, modal verbs , Special structures with existential, original and possessive markers “cã” “do” “bëi” “cña”. Meanwhile, the pragmatic effect of patient promotion is expressed with the following structures: Active sentence, Passive sentence (agent –including sentence). causative structures with do, b»ng ,bëi and with the emphasis markers chÝnh do, chÝnh bëi.

The explanation for this can be:

+ Several transitive verbs in English have the Vietnamese intransitive equivalents like drown -chÕt ®uèi, demob - gi¶i ngò.

+ Several verbs in English can be used as both transitive verbs and intransitive ones. These verbs in the translated version can be used in non - passive structures. The transitive verbs in English like flood are translated as intransitive verb lôt in Vietnamese.

+ Sentences with the clauses of hidden subjects can be accepted in Vietnamese but not in English. This allows such structures as the non - agent passive, impersonal structures with “Ng­êi ta,Ta”, impersonal structures with verbs, modal verbs, special structures with existential, original and possessive markers “cã” “do” “bëi” “cña” in Vietnamese turn into the agent –including passive in English.

+Due to cultural or historical factors, there is a big group of synonyms, which has a limited equivalents in the target language. Bá m×nh, hi sinh, n»m l¹i ,n¸n l¹i ,kh«ng trë vÒ are the Vietnamese words with the same equivalent of be killed in English.

+An other reason can be the specific translation of idiomatic expression or proper name such as quen tay mÊt råi versus I have got used to it.

In short, the English passive voice has two pragmatic effects associated with two English passive constructions: patient promotion / agent demotion with the structure of S + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE, patient promotion-agent as the late news with the structure of S + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE + BY PHRASE. In Vietnamese, these two pragmatic effects are associated with a great number of structures. The pragmatic effect of Patient promotion / agent demotion are associated with the Vietnamese structures of : Active sentences ( with the added passive subject ), Neutral sentences, Passive sentences (non -agent sentences), Impersonal structures with “Ng­êi ta,Ta”, Impersonal structures with verbs, modal verbs , Special structures with existential, original and possessive markers “cã” “do” “bëi” “cña”. The pragmatic effect of patient promotion is expressed with the following structures: Active sentence, Passive sentence (agent –including sentence), causative structures with do, b»ng, bëi and with the emphasis markers chÝnh do, chÝnh bëi. The explanation is taken from the differences not only in the in linguistic, grammatical factors but also from the cultural factor.




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